Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons™
Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Institution
- Keyword
-
- Suicide (3)
- Addiction (2)
- Adolescents (2)
- Autism (2)
- Motivation (2)
-
- Academic achievement (1)
- Acculturation (1)
- Acculturative stress (1)
- Achievement goal theory (1)
- Acquired capability for suicide (1)
- Adjustment problems (1)
- Advertisement (1)
- Advertisements (1)
- Affect (1)
- Alcohol (1)
- Anger (1)
- Animal training (1)
- Antisocial behavior (1)
- Association patterns (1)
- Autism Spectrum Disorder (1)
- Backlash (1)
- Behavior (1)
- Behavioral intervention (1)
- Belonging (1)
- Big five personality (1)
- Black American (1)
- Bottlenose dolphin (1)
- Bottlenose dolphins (1)
- Business (1)
- Bystander (1)
Articles 1 - 30 of 45
Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences
Child Routines And Self-Regulation As Mediators Of Parenting Practices And Externalizing Problems In Preschoolers, Lovina R. Bater
Child Routines And Self-Regulation As Mediators Of Parenting Practices And Externalizing Problems In Preschoolers, Lovina R. Bater
Master's Theses
Studies clearly indicate that parenting practices relate to child externalizing behaviors, although the mechanisms underlying this relation are less well understood. Researchers suggest that daily routines are one way through which parenting practices relate to externalizing behaviors, allowing children to regulate their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors accordingly, potentially promoting development of appropriate self-regulatory behaviors. Self-regulation is also a possible route through which child routines inversely relate to externalizing behaviors. These relationships have been tested in school-age and older children, yet self-regulatory abilities are known to develop during the preschool period. This study examined child routines and self-regulation as serial mediators …
Development And Validation Of A Survey Of Knowledge Of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Laura Katherine Hansen
Development And Validation Of A Survey Of Knowledge Of Autism Spectrum Disorder, Laura Katherine Hansen
Master's Theses
As autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is more commonly diagnosed, having knowledge of the disorder becomes increasingly important for educators, parents, and the general public. Previous research regarding knowledge of ASD, focused mainly on knowledge possessed by those in the educational field, has found that individuals may perceive themselves as possessing average knowledge regarding ASD but have low actual knowledge (as defined by the researchers) regarding specific aspects of the disorder (Williams et al., 2011). Studies support the notion that there is a general lack of knowledge of different aspects of ASD among teachers; however, there has been little research regarding …
A Comparison Of Two Function-Based Interventions: Ncr Vs. Dro In A Preschool Classroom, Zachary C. Labrot
A Comparison Of Two Function-Based Interventions: Ncr Vs. Dro In A Preschool Classroom, Zachary C. Labrot
Master's Theses
The purpose of this study was to determine the relative efficacy of non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) after behavioral functions have been identified through indirect, descriptive, and experimental assessment. Participants included three preschool-age children in center-based classrooms (Head Start) in a southeastern school district. Functional assessment data were used to inform treatment procedures, which were examined with an alternating treatments design. This study examined (1) relative differences in the efficacy of NCR and DRO in decreasing problem behaviors in preschool children, (2) relative differences in the efficacy of NCR and DRO in increasing appropriate behavior, …
Effects Of Failure On Subsequent Performance In The Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops Truncatus), Lisa Kay Lauderdale
Effects Of Failure On Subsequent Performance In The Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops Truncatus), Lisa Kay Lauderdale
Master's Theses
The current study examined the immediate effects of two types of failure during operant-conditioning based training sessions in 11 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program in San Diego, CA. While learning a multi-faceted behavior not commonly found in nature, such as beaching, animals are likely to perform approximations of the behavior that are not successful and do not result in reinforcement. The effects of failure on beaching trials were systematically investigated over a three-month period by determining the mean failure rate and the probability of success after initial success, initial attempts, and initial …
Are Large Dogs Smarter Than Small Dogs? Investigating Within Species Differences In Large And Small Dogs: Spatial Memory, Megan S. Broadway
Are Large Dogs Smarter Than Small Dogs? Investigating Within Species Differences In Large And Small Dogs: Spatial Memory, Megan S. Broadway
Master's Theses
The study of canine cognition can be useful in understanding the ontology and selective pressures that affect the development of cognitive abilities. Dogs have undergone intensive artificial selection yielding distinctive breeds which differ both phenotypically and behaviorally. Breed based cognitive differences have not been found but some studies suggest there may be differences in broader categories such as working disposition and sex. The influence of size on canine cognition has not been thoroughly addressed despite the fact that large dogs are often perceived to be ‘smarter’ than small dogs. This preconception has only recently been addressed and supported in one …
Examining The Association Between Psychotropic Medication And Suicidal Desire And Risk, Brittney L. Assavedo
Examining The Association Between Psychotropic Medication And Suicidal Desire And Risk, Brittney L. Assavedo
Master's Theses
The primary aim of this study was to examine the relationship between components of suicidal desire and psychotropic medication. Specifically, the usage of psychotropic medication, the usage of specific classes of psychotropic medications and the amount of psychotropic medication utilized and differences in feelings of perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness and overall suicide risk were examined. The present study utilized pre-collected data consisting of 225 patients with substance use disorder undergoing residential treatment for substance dependence. It was posited that individuals utilizing psychotropic medications would exhibit higher mean levels of thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and suicide risk relative to individuals not …
Same-Sex Socio-Sexual Interactions Among A Group Of Captive Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus), Natalia Botero Acosta
Same-Sex Socio-Sexual Interactions Among A Group Of Captive Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus), Natalia Botero Acosta
Master's Theses
Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) frequently engage in non-reproductive sexual behavior, including homosexual encounters. In order to better understand the nature and function of these interactions, a longitudinal study of the patterns of association and the dynamics of initiator/recipient role exchange was conducted. Underwater video footage of a colony of bottlenose dolphins housed at the Roatan Institute for Marine Sciences (RIMS), collected between March of 2010 and May of 2013, was analyzed. Associations occurring during homosexual interactions were transitory for most individuals. Nonetheless, subsequent analyses allowed the rejection of the null hypothesis of random association, suggesting the existence of …
"Casting Aside That Ficticious Self.": Deciphering Female Identity In The Awakening 2015, Anne L. Dicosimo
"Casting Aside That Ficticious Self.": Deciphering Female Identity In The Awakening 2015, Anne L. Dicosimo
Master's Theses
Kate Chopin’s female protagonists have long since fascinated literary critics, raising serious questions concerning the influence of nineteenth-century female gender roles in her writing. Published in 1899, The Awakening demonstrates the changeability of the various representations of woman. In the nineteenth century, the subject of women may be divided into two categories: the True Woman and the New Woman. The former were expected to “cherish and maintain the four cardinal virtues of piety, purity, submissiveness and domesticity” (Khoshnood et al.), while the latter sought to move away from hearth and home in order to focus on education, professions, and political …
The Beast Inside: Trauma Theory And William Golding's Lord Of The Flies 2015, Emily Paccia
The Beast Inside: Trauma Theory And William Golding's Lord Of The Flies 2015, Emily Paccia
Master's Theses
Following World War II and the horrible devastation in Europe, especially in London, Britain began to rebuild. The country was attempting to come back from war, and the culture reflected a bleak, disheartening feeling. Literature written during this time period, which so often reflects the culture directly, showed that very same bleakness. British novelist, and one who lived through that time, William Golding, writing in the 1960's, recreated the dystopia brought into European countries from living through the destruction of the war. Creating a vision of the future -- one of dysfunction and chaos -- Golding’s characters from Lord of …
Investigating The Use Of A Positive Variation Of The Good Behavior Game In A High School Setting, Shauna Lynne
Investigating The Use Of A Positive Variation Of The Good Behavior Game In A High School Setting, Shauna Lynne
Master's Theses
The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an example of an interdependent group contingency that can be used in classrooms to manage behavior. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a positive variation of the GBG in which teachers attend to rule-following behavior, as opposed to the original version of the game in which teachers attend to rule-breaking behavior. In previous studies, researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of the GBG in decreasing problematic behavior and/or increasing productive or desired behavior in classroom settings and in hospital settings and spanning preschool-aged, elementary toddlers to high school-aged adolescents. An …
The Effects Of Tootling On Disruptive And Academic Behaviors In High School, John Dylan Ken Lum
The Effects Of Tootling On Disruptive And Academic Behaviors In High School, John Dylan Ken Lum
Master's Theses
Considered the opposite of tattling, tootling is a procedure where students report their classmates’ positive behavior instead of inappropriate behavior. This study examined the effects of tootling on students’ behavior in three general education high school classrooms. An A-B-A-B withdrawal with follow-up design was used to assess the effects of the intervention on decreasing classwide disruptive behavior and increasing academically engaged behavior. Students wrote tootles anonymously on paper slips, and deposited them into a marked container. An interdependent group contingency procedure was used to create a class goal for the number of submitted tootles, which led to a class reward …
The Nature Of Social Relationships In Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus): Associations And The Role Of Affiliative, Agonistic, And Socio-Sexual Behaviors, Briana Nicole Harvey
The Nature Of Social Relationships In Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops Truncatus): Associations And The Role Of Affiliative, Agonistic, And Socio-Sexual Behaviors, Briana Nicole Harvey
Master's Theses
Little is known about the specific behavioral exchanges that occur on a day-to-day basis between dyads of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). This thesis assesses proximity between dyads (~ 2 meters) and the proportion of time that is spent in either an affiliative, agonistic, or socio-sexual context within age/sex pairings of dolphins in order to better understand the nature of social relationships in this species. Observations of bottlenose dolphins housed at the Roatan Institute of Marine Sciences, collected in 2010, provided 10.5 hours of underwater footage for assessment of association coefficients and proportions of interactions. These data suggested similar …
Ostracism And Antisocial Behavior: The Role Of Perceived Justice, Entitlement, And Anger, Christopher Jeffrey Nathanael Lustgraaf
Ostracism And Antisocial Behavior: The Role Of Perceived Justice, Entitlement, And Anger, Christopher Jeffrey Nathanael Lustgraaf
Master's Theses
Recent research has demonstrated that antisocial behavior following a general ostracism experience is mediated by increased feelings of entitlement (Poon, Chen, & DeWall, 2013) and anger (Chow, Tiedens, & Govan, 2008). However, this prior research has failed to determine whether ostracism in general leads to antisocial behavior, or only ostracism that is perceived of as unfair or unjust. The purpose of the current study was to manipulate the perceived fairness of the ostracism experience (fair or unfair) and assess participants’ antisocial behavioral intentions (i.e., dishonest intentions). It was hypothesized that an unfair ostracism experience (compared to a fair ostracism or …
Lack Of Forgiveness Of Parents And Intimate Partner Violence, Hannah Doucette
Lack Of Forgiveness Of Parents And Intimate Partner Violence, Hannah Doucette
Master's Theses
This study examined whether there was an association between lack of forgiveness for adverse events/circumstances perpetrated by parents and intimate partner violence (IPV) in emerging adulthood. Participants were 208 (85.6% female) 18- and 19-year-old undergraduate students. Participants were asked to describe events/circumstances in which they felt hurt by their parents when they were growing up. They then answered questions related to the most hurtful event including items pertaining to forgiveness. Participants also answered questions about the perpetration and victimization of IPV in the past year. The forgiveness-IPV relation was observed primarily for physical injury. Findings indicated that revenge seeking and …
Zebrafish And Conditioned Place Preference: A Translational Model Of Drug Reward, Adam Douglas Collier
Zebrafish And Conditioned Place Preference: A Translational Model Of Drug Reward, Adam Douglas Collier
Master's Theses
Addiction and substance abuse commonly lead to negative outcomes such damaged health, domestic violence, child abuse, failure in school, and loss of employment. In the United States, hundreds of billions of dollars accrue annually in costs associated with healthcare, crime and lost productivity due to addiction. Efficacious treatments remain few in number, the development of which will be facilitated by comprehension of environmental, genetic, pharmacological and neurobiological mechanisms implicated in the pathogenesis of addiction. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has recently gained popularity as a model organism of complex brain disorders (e.g., substance use disorder). Behavioral quantification within the conditioned place …
Psychosocial Motivators For Obstacle Course Racing: A Qualitative Case Study, Aracely Rodriguez
Psychosocial Motivators For Obstacle Course Racing: A Qualitative Case Study, Aracely Rodriguez
Master's Theses
This study explored the psychological and sociological motivations of adult female and male obstacle course racers. A qualitative case study approach was used to explore the views, experiences, and motivations of obstacle course racing (OCR) participants. Descriptive statistics and cross tabulation was used to interpret responses to the 297 online questionnaires. A content analysis approach was used to analyze the qualitative data gathered from three focus groups with a total of 20 obstacle course racers. Three theories formed the basis of the study: Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Achievement Goal Theory (AGT), and Social Leaning Theory (SLT). Overall, findings supported previous research …
An Investigation Of Aerobic Fitness, Perceived Quality Of Life And The Direct Effects Of Self-Determination Theory In College Students 2015, Alanna Darling
An Investigation Of Aerobic Fitness, Perceived Quality Of Life And The Direct Effects Of Self-Determination Theory In College Students 2015, Alanna Darling
Master's Theses
There have been numerous studies examining the association between physical activity, motivation and quality of life. In contrast, studies focusing on aerobic fitness and its relationship with levels of motivation and perceived quality of life are lacking. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between a direct measure of aerobic fitness, behavioral regulations, and perceptions of quality of life in college-aged sample. Participants included both males (n=129; 21.1±1.8 years) and females (n=89; 20.8±1.4 years) who completed the Behavioral Regulations of Exercise Questionnaire-2 sub-scores and Perceived Quality of Life (PQoL) instruments. Participants then performed the Queen’s College Step …
Influence Of Sex And Sport Skill Type On Imagery Use Among Division Iii Athletes 2015, Daniel Jones
Influence Of Sex And Sport Skill Type On Imagery Use Among Division Iii Athletes 2015, Daniel Jones
Master's Theses
There is limited research revealing the underlying trends and influences of imagery use in sports. The purpose of this study was to investigate the frequency of imagery use among National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III collegiate athletes. Additionally, the influence of athlete sex and sport skill type was examined. A sample of 337 athletes from 15 different sports participated in the study. The Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblaus, 1998) was administered to assess the frequency of imagery use between males and females as well as between open-skill sport (e.g., basketball, hockey, etc) and closed-skill sport …
The Relationship Between Motivation And Volunteer Satisfaction In Conservation Programs 2015., Raena Blumenthal
The Relationship Between Motivation And Volunteer Satisfaction In Conservation Programs 2015., Raena Blumenthal
Master's Theses
Conservation leisure service organizations are relying more heavily on volunteers to sustain their services and protect natural resources (Strigas, 2006). However, research focusing on volunteer vacationers, those who spend money to volunteer, is still in its infancy. Drawing on functional theorizing (Bruyer & Rappe, 2007; Clary, Snyder, Ridge, Copeland, Stukas, Haugen, & Miene, 1998; Houle, Sagarin, & Kaplan, 2005; Katz, 1960; Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956), this study explored volunteer vacationers’ motivations and the relationships between motivations to volunteer, satisfaction with the volunteer vacation experience, and inclinations to volunteer in the future (in both local and nonlocal settings). The study …
Can Dolphins Cooperate To Solve A Novel Task?, Kelley Ann Winship
Can Dolphins Cooperate To Solve A Novel Task?, Kelley Ann Winship
Master's Theses
Bottlenose dolphins cooperate in a variety of contexts, including foraging,acquiring mates, playing, and assisting distressed conspecifics. To better understand the capacity for cooperative behaviors, animals are often given tasks that require pairs of animals to coordinate their actions in order to receive a reward. This paper reports the results of an aquatic version of one such task: cooperative rope-pulling. Three groups of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) were given an apparatus that could most easily be opened by the two animals working together. Two untrained adult males at one location were successful in opening the apparatus together, sharing …
Physical Disability And Suicidal Desire: An Examination Of The Constructs Of The Interpersonal-Psychological Theory Of Suicide, Lauren Rachel Khazem
Physical Disability And Suicidal Desire: An Examination Of The Constructs Of The Interpersonal-Psychological Theory Of Suicide, Lauren Rachel Khazem
Master's Theses
The primary aims of this study were to examine constructs of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide (IPTS) in an understudied population. Differences in levels of IPTS variables and suicidal ideation between university students with and without physical disabilities were examined. Participants were 184 students from two Southern universities who provided answers to online-based self-report questionnaires. It was hypothesized that students with physical disabilities would endorse higher levels of all IPTS constructs relative to students without physical disabilities. It was further hypothesized that disability status would exhibit an indirect effect on suicidal ideation through perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness. Results indicated …
Personality, Character Strengths, Empathy, Familiarity And The Stigmatization Of Mental Illness, Jessica Shanna James
Personality, Character Strengths, Empathy, Familiarity And The Stigmatization Of Mental Illness, Jessica Shanna James
Master's Theses
The stigma associated with mental illness is pervasive and detrimental. The aim of the current study was to assess individual characteristics that may be positively and negatively associated with the stigmatization of mental illness. Two-hundred fifty-nine undergraduate students from the University of Southern Mississippi completed measures of the Big Five personality traits (i.e., Agreeableness, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience), Dark Triad personality traits (i.e., Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy), selected character strengths (i.e., Open-mindedness, Perspective, Bravery, Integrity, Kindness, Social Intelligence, Fairness, Forgiveness and Mercy, and Hope), Empathy, and Familiarity with mental illness. Participants also completed measures of stigmatizing attitudes …
Reducing Disruptive Behavior In High School: The Good Behavior Game, William Blake Ford
Reducing Disruptive Behavior In High School: The Good Behavior Game, William Blake Ford
Master's Theses
Disruptive behavior in the classroom setting negatively impacts the learning process in various ways, interfering with the educational process of individual students, the teacher, and/or the class as a whole. Class-wide levels of disruptive behaviors worsen these impacts and are often related to problems with a teacher’s classroom management techniques and abilities. Group contingency interventions, such as the Good Behavior Game (GBG), are often used to provide teachers with evidence based management strategies while improving student behavior in the class. Furthermore, group contingency interventions, such as the GBG, can be conceptualized as Tier I or Tier II interventions within a …
Age And Iq As Potential Moderators In The Relation Among Endopheonotypes And Expressed Behaviors In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Elizabeth Clara Fair
Age And Iq As Potential Moderators In The Relation Among Endopheonotypes And Expressed Behaviors In Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder, Elizabeth Clara Fair
Master's Theses
The current study examined how certain endophenotypes (i.e., local processing ability, mental flexibility, planning, and disinhibition /inhibition) are related to specific expressed behaviors (i.e., acting out behaviors, social insight deficits, social contact problems, anxious/rigid behaviors, and stereotypical behaviors) that are commonly found in children with ASD. In addition, this study examined whether these associations are modified by age or IQ. Participants consisted of 29 children (ages 7 to 16 years) with ASD and their parents. Parents completed the Children’s Social Behavior Questionnaire (CSBQ) to assess their child’s variety of expressed behaviors. The children were given the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test—Second …
College Students’ Alcohol Use And Related Problems: What Makes Religiousness A Protective Factor?, Corey Todd Brawner
College Students’ Alcohol Use And Related Problems: What Makes Religiousness A Protective Factor?, Corey Todd Brawner
Master's Theses
Excessive alcohol use has been recognized as a critical health hazard for college students, particularly for members of social fraternities and sororities. Religiousness and Spirituality (R/S) has received substantial support as a protective factor for alcohol use across many populations. The current study utilized a series of hierarchical regression models to delineate the protective influences of six R/S dimensions on alcohol consumption, harmful drinking patterns, and alcohol-related problems, as well as their moderating effect on the association between Greek membership and alcohol outcomes in a sample of 709 undergraduates from one Christian-affiliated institution and one public university. Public religious participation …
Clarifying The Association Between The Subtypes Of Narcissism And Suicide Risk, Stephanie Michelle Pennings
Clarifying The Association Between The Subtypes Of Narcissism And Suicide Risk, Stephanie Michelle Pennings
Master's Theses
Further research is needed to clarify the relationship between narcissism and suicidality. Ambiguous results yielded by past studies may be attributed to the two distinct forms of narcissism (i.e., grandiose and vulnerable). The current study aimed to examine the association between the components of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicidal behavior (IPTS; Joiner, 2005; i.e., thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness, and the acquired capability for suicide) and the two subtypes of narcissism. The potential explanatory effect of emotion dysregulation, a construct linked to the development of suicide risk, on the relationship between the forms of narcissism and the components of suicide risk …
Humor Types: Replication Using Latent Profile Analysis And Associations With Maladaptive Personality Traits, Joseph Robert Finn
Humor Types: Replication Using Latent Profile Analysis And Associations With Maladaptive Personality Traits, Joseph Robert Finn
Master's Theses
Martin’s (2003) Humor Styles Questionnaire measures four distinct styles of humor usage. However, examining these humor styles individually fails to account for the combination with which they are used as well as how these combinations may affect the relationship between humor and personality. The present study examined relationships of the humor styles, both individually and in combination, with a broad array of maladaptive personality traits. The incremental validity of accounting for the combinations with which the humor styles are used was examined through the use of hierarchical multiple regressions. Results demonstrated that the humor styles, both individually and in combination, …
The Differential Effects Of Peer Influence And Advertisement On Healthy Food Choices, Lindsey M. Gordon
The Differential Effects Of Peer Influence And Advertisement On Healthy Food Choices, Lindsey M. Gordon
Master's Theses
The current study examined the differential effects of advertisement and peer pressure on the consumer choices of young adults.. Data were gathered from Fort Hays State University undergraduate participants enrolled in psychology courses. Participants were assigned to one of four experimental groups being comprised of two separate two-level independent variables. One independent variable, advertisement-type, appeared on a computer screen while the participants were completing a simple, yet arbitrary task. The next independent variable, peer choice, was manipulated by having confederates in the same experimental session choose either healthy or unhealthy foods prior to the participants as a reward for completing …
Bystander Confronting Of Anti-Black Racism: Effects Of Belonging Affirmation And Confrontation Training, Rayne Bozeman
Bystander Confronting Of Anti-Black Racism: Effects Of Belonging Affirmation And Confrontation Training, Rayne Bozeman
Master's Theses
Confronting has the potential to reduce prejudice, especially when implemented by a non-target group member. Not knowing how to respond and fearing social rejection have been identified as barriers to confronting in previous studies. The current study tests whether providing training to confront prejudice and affirming the need to belong helps individuals overcome these barriers. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three training conditions: prejudice confrontation training (PCT), rude comment training (RCT), or no training control group (NT). Participants were also randomly assigned to one of two belonging conditions: belonging affirmation or control. Participants were then asked to imagine …
The Influence Of Community-Based Summer Programs On Ethnically Diverse, Low-Income Chicago Youth, Amy Governale
The Influence Of Community-Based Summer Programs On Ethnically Diverse, Low-Income Chicago Youth, Amy Governale
Master's Theses
How youth spend their time has become an increasingly important factor in studying adolescent development. During the summer months, longer periods of unsupervised time have been associated with a loss of academic skills and lower social-emotional skills. One support for at-risk youth and adolescents might be summer programs housed in community-based organizations. Using a pre-post test design over an 11-week period, the present study examines the linkages among participation in summer programs, individual characteristics, and youth outcomes among ethnically diverse, low-income Chicago youth. Analyses revealed ethnicity was related to math skills at the end of the summer, although the strongest …