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Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons™
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Articles 1 - 28 of 28
Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences
Workplace Incivility, Megan Paul
Workplace Incivility, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is workplace incivility? Workplace incivility refers to “low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect. Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others” (Anderson & Pearson, 1999, p. 457). Though there is some conceptual and empirical overlap between incivility and ostracism, bullying, and abusive supervision, incivility is considered distinct (Yao et al., 2021). Incivility has been examined from the perspective of both the victim and the instigator, exploring factors related to being the target of incivility and factors related to engaging in uncivil …
Behavior Modeling Training, Megan Paul
Behavior Modeling Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is behavior modeling training? Behavior modeling training (BMT) involves the following five steps: “(a) describing to trainees a set of well-defined behaviors (skills) to be learned, (b) providing a model or models displaying the effective use of those behaviors, (c) providing opportunities for trainees to practice using those behaviors, (d) providing feedback and social reinforcement to trainees following practice, and (e) taking steps to maximize the transfer of those behaviors to the job” (Taylor et al., 2005, p. 692). BMT can be used to train a variety of skills, from interpersonal skills like conflict management, interviewing, assertive communication, and …
Signaling In Training, Megan Paul
Signaling In Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is signaling? In a learning environment, signaling refers to cues that direct learners’ attention to specific instructional content or that emphasize how the content is organized (van Gog, 2014). Signals can be verbal (oral or written) or visual (static or dynamic images or graphics). More commonly studied examples include: signals in written materials: underlining, italics, bold, highlighting, outlines, headings, overviews, and summaries signals in visual materials: arrows, circles, flashing, color coding, spotlighting (graying out some content), zooming in on key content, and gestures of pedagogical agents When signals are used only in written text (i.e., without accompanying …
Self-Explanation In Training, Megan Paul
Self-Explanation In Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is self-explanation? Self-explanation is “a process by which learners generate inferences about causal connections or conceptual relationships” (Bisra et al., 2018). It involves pausing to think more deeply about instructional content, to better connect it with prior knowledge or to check for understanding. Self-explanations can be prompted (through specific instructions or questions) or unprompted (done spontaneously by a learner). Prompts can include instructions to explain, open-ended questions, or closed-ended questions such as multiple choice (Bisra et al., 2018). There is no one type of self-explanation. Examples include providing rationale for a decision or belief and explaining a concept, process, …
Time Management, Megan Paul
Time Management, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is time management? The definition of time management varies across disciplines, researchers, and practitioners. In the context of workplace research, one suggested definition is “behaviours that aim at achieving an effective use of time while performing certain goal-directed activities” (Claessens et al., 2007, p. 262). Another is “a form of decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time to changing conditions” (Aeon & Aguinis, 2017, p. 311). Most research on time management has used self-report measures; diaries and ratings by others (e.g., supervisors) are used much less frequently. Of the self-report measures, no one measure …
Leadership Training, Megan Paul
Leadership Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is leadership training? Leadership training is a broad term with no universal definition. For the purposes of this review, it refers to “programs that have been systematically designed to enhance leader knowledge, skills, abilities, and other components” and it includes “all forms of leader, managerial, and supervisory training/development programs and/or workshops” (Lacerenza et al., 2017, p. 1687). As with all training, leadership training can vary in many ways. Below are some of the more common aspects that have been empirically evaluated: Needs analysis: whether a systematic process was used to identify training needs and design the training accordingly …
Conversational Style In Training, Megan Paul
Conversational Style In Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is conversational style? Conversational style refers to a combination of stylistic strategies to personalize instructional text (oral or written) for learners. These include “the use of first and second rather than third person, directly addressing the reader, revealing [the author’s] personal beliefs, and/or using polite forms of address” (Ginns et al., 2013, p. 452). The following excerpts illustrate such styles: “During inhaling, the [your] diaphragm moves down creating more space for the [your] lungs” (Mayer et al., 2004) “Let me tell you what happens when lightning forms” (vs. just the scientific description; Moreno & Mayer, 2000) …
Workplace Ostracism, Megan Paul
Workplace Ostracism, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is workplace ostracism? Workplace ostracism is “the extent to which an individual perceives that he or she is ignored or excluded by others at work” (Ferris et al., 2008, p. 1348). The most popular measure is the 10item Workplace Ostracism Scale (Ferris et al., 2008). Example items include “others avoided you at work,” “others refused to talk to you at work,” and “others at work shut you out of the conversation.” Why is workplace ostracism important? Ostracism in the workplace is important because it is associated with an array of job attitudes, stress indicators, and behaviors. Specifically, ostracism is …
Workload, Megan Paul
Workload, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is workload? There is no one, universally accepted definition of workload. A broad definition is that it is “an all-encompassing term that includes any variable reflecting the amount or difficulty of one’s work” (Bowling & Kirkendall, 2012, p. 222). Quantitative workload is the label for the amount of work done, and qualitative workload is the label for the difficulty of work (Bowling & Kirkendall, 2012). Further, there is a distinction between mental and physical workload and between objective and perceived workload (Bowling & Kirkendall, 2012). A variety of approaches have been used to measure objective workload. A common one …
Organizational Constraints, Megan Paul
Organizational Constraints, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are organizational constraints? Organizational constraints are work conditions that interfere with an employee’s motivation or ability to perform (Spector & Jex, 1998). Though the overall definition sounds quite broad, the assessment focuses on 11 specific types of constraints: inadequate training, incorrect instruction, lack of necessary information about what to do or how to do it, poor equipment or supplies, lack of equipment or supplies, organizational rules and procedures, conflicting job demands, other employees, the supervisor, inadequate help from others, and interruptions by other people (Spector & Jex, 1998). Respondents indicate how frequently these factors make it difficult or impossible …
Cultural Intelligence, Megan Paul
Cultural Intelligence, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is cultural intelligence? Cultural intelligence (CQ) is “a person’s adaptation to new cultural settings and capability to deal effectively with other people with whom the person does not share a common cultural background and understanding” (Earley & Ang, 2003, p. 34). Note that this is about general capabilities that cut across different cultures, rather than effectiveness in a specific culture (Ang et al., 2015). Though this definition sounds like it includes all types of intercultural interactions, the focus is a bit more limited—work settings and situations that involve differences in race, ethnicity, and nationality, either within or across countries. …
Abusive Supervision, Megan Paul
Abusive Supervision, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is abusive supervision? Abusive supervision refers to “subordinates' perceptions of the extent to which supervisors engage in the sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors, excluding physical contact” (Tepper, 2000, p. 178). Abusive supervision is most commonly measured using 15 items that describe abusive behaviors, and subordinates rate the frequency with which the supervisor engages in each behavior. Examples include “Ridicules me,” “Puts me down in front of others,” “Blames me to save himself/herself embarrassment,” and “Breaks promises he/she makes” (Tepper, 2000). Thus, subordinates do not judge whether they feel abused or consider their supervisors’ behavior abusive; they …
Generations In The Workplace, Stephanie Weddington
Generations In The Workplace, Stephanie Weddington
Umbrella Summaries
What is a generation? A generation is defined as “a group of individuals, who are roughly the same age, and who experience and are influenced by the same set of significant historical events during key developmental periods in their lives, typically late childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood. Further, these differences are not attributable solely to an individual’s age but rather to the common influence of shared experiences on the cohort” (Costanza et al., 2012, p. 377). There is general agreement on the labeling of generations (i.e., Silent, Baby Boomer, Generation X, Millennial, Generation Z); however, the date ranges used to …
Video Feedback, Megan Paul
Video Feedback, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is video feedback? Video feedback refers here to a training method that involves giving learners feedback on their skills using a video recording of their behavior in a real or simulated environment. Though video feedback is used in a variety of settings (e.g., athletic, parenting, or surgical training), the focus here is on skill development among professionals that engage in interpersonal interactions (e.g., teachers, social workers, nurses; Fukkink et al., 2011). Targeted skills may be broad (e.g., empathy, nervousness, active listening) or narrow (body posture, eye contact, gestures, use of open questions). The process typically involves recording learners as …
After-Action Reviews, Megan Paul
After-Action Reviews, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are after-action reviews? An after-action review (AAR) is “a systematic technique that turns a recent event into a learning opportunity through a combination of task feedback, reflection, and discussion” (Keiser & Arthur, 2020, p. 2). The process has been used in various fields, leading to a variety of labels, including after-event review, debrief, guided team self-correction, and reflexivity (e.g., Chen et al., 2018; Couper et al., 2013; Ellis & Davidi, 2005; Smith-Jentsch et al., 2008). Note that though the term “debrief” is sometimes used, AARs are distinct from debriefing sessions that are intended to help individuals process stressful or …
Seductive Details In Training, Megan Paul
Seductive Details In Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are seductive details? In a learning environment, seductive details are interesting but unimportant details that are not necessary to achieve the instructional objective (Garner et al., 1989). The information may be tangentially related to the topic but is not relevant to the main teaching goal. Such details are often included for the purpose of making the topic more interesting and engaging. There are many potential types of seductive details; they can be visual, verbal, or aural—static or dynamic images (e.g., illustrations, photos, animations), written or spoken words (e.g., text, narration), or sounds (e.g., music; Sundararajan & Adesope, 2020). Why …
Pedagogical Agents, Megan Paul
Pedagogical Agents, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are pedagogical agents? Pedagogical agents are “lifelike characters presented on a computer screen that guide users through multimedia learning environments” (Clarebout & Heidig, 2012, p. 2568). Pedagogical agents can vary in multiple ways. The following characteristics have been most studied: appearance (two-dimensional [2D] vs. three-dimensional [3D]), eye gaze, facial expression, gesturing, motion, and gender. The simplest pedagogical agent would be a static, 2D image with just text, and a complex agent would be a dynamic, 3D person or character that talks, gestures, and has eye movements and facial expressions. Why are pedagogical agents valuable? Pedagogical agents are valuable because …
Training Tests, Megan Paul
Training Tests, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are training tests? For this purpose, training tests include any form of knowledge assessment intended to gauge learning from training. Tests can be of varying lengths, formats (e.g., true/false, multiple choice, short answer), or labels (e.g., quiz, learning checks). The important feature is that they require learners to practice retrieving training-related information from memory. Thus, the focus here is on knowledge and understanding, versus skill acquisition. Why are training tests valuable? Training tests are valuable because the act of taking a test improves subsequent learning outcomes. More specifically, people who take a test perform better on later assessments of …
Organizational Cynicism, Dana Hollinshead, Megan Paul
Organizational Cynicism, Dana Hollinshead, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is organizational cynicism? Organizational cynicism is defined as “a negative attitude toward one's employing organization, comprising three dimensions: (1) a belief that the organization lacks integrity; (2) negative affect toward the organization; and (3) tendencies to disparaging and critical behaviors toward the organization that are consistent with these beliefs and affect” (Dean et al., 1998, p. 345). Measures of organizational cynicism include statements such as “I’ve pretty much given up trying to make suggestions for improvements around here” (Tesluk et al., 1990, p. 283) and “I believe that [the organization] says one thing and does another” (Brandes et al., …
Coaching, Megan Paul, Tara Myers
Coaching, Megan Paul, Tara Myers
Umbrella Summaries
What is coaching? There is no single universally recognized definition of coaching. In the context of the workplace, common elements of coaching definitions include a one-on-one systematic relationship, learning, behavioral change, self-awareness, and improved performance (Grover & Furnham, 2016). Some notable differences in definitions include who receives the coaching, who conducts the coaching, the type of behavior change that is targeted, and the nature of the coaching behaviors. For example, several definitions focus more exclusively on top leaders receiving coaching from external, professional coaches (e.g., Kilburg, 1996); known more commonly as executive coaching, this was a common arrangement when workplace …
Gratitude, Stephanie Weddington, Megan Paul
Gratitude, Stephanie Weddington, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is gratitude? There are three ways of thinking about gratitude—as a state, a trait, or a tendency that can be improved through practice. A person can experience a brief state of gratitude in response to a specific event or another person’s kind actions (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). Gratitude is also considered a more enduring personality trait, disposition, or life orientation in which an individual has a general propensity to feel grateful for, notice, and appreciate the positives in day-to-day life (McCullough et al., 2002; Wood et al., 2010). Finally, individuals can enhance their tendency to feel grateful over time …
Pre-Training Interventions, Megan Paul
Pre-Training Interventions, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are pre-training interventions? Pre-training interventions refer to strategies that are implemented prior to training, for the purpose of enhancing training outcomes. Thus far, the primary strategies that have been most frequently investigated include (a) attentional advice, (b) meta-cognitive strategies, (c) advance organizers, (d) goal orientation, and (e) preparatory information (Cannon-Bowers et al., 1998; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2010). Attentional advice includes guidance to orient the learner to what they will learn. Examples include going over the main learning objectives or highlighting essential aspects of the training and how they relate to the job. Meta-cognitive strategies include approaches for …
Sleep, Megan Paul
Sleep, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is sleep? In the context of the workplace, investigations into sleep tend to focus on two main aspects: sleep quantity and sleep quality. Though sleep is occasionally measured using objective measures that assess physiological indicators, subjective self-report measures are most often used (Litwiller et al., 2017). There are dozens of measures for assessing sleep quality or quantity, some of which are single items and others that include multiple items. A more commonly used multidimensional measure is the 19-item Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, which assesses factors like sleep duration, sleep disturbance, and sleep efficiency, among others (Buysse et al., 1989). …
Public Service Motivation, Megan Paul
Public Service Motivation, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is public service motivation? Public service motivation (PSM) is defined as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry & Wise, 1990). In other words, it is about a person’s desire or interest to serve the public, often in the public sector, but also in the private, non-profit sector. It was developed in response to calls to revive interest in working in government, to restore the country’s faith in public institutions (Perry & Wise, 1990). The goal of the research was to explore whether people had such values and interests and, if …
Union Commitment And Participation, Tara Myers, Megan Paul
Union Commitment And Participation, Tara Myers, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What are union commitment and participation? Union commitment refers to the extent to which employees are dedicated to their union (Cooper-Hakim & Viswesvaran, 2005; Gordon, Philpot, Burt, Thompson, & Spiller, 1980). Union participation is active involvement in the union such as attending meetings, serving on committees, holding office, campaigning, voting, assisting with contracts and negotiations, managing union funds, and filing grievances (Anderson, 1979). Many researchers consider union participation as part of union commitment (e.g., Gordon et al., 1980). Others have speculated that union participation is a consequence of union commitment (e.g., Parks, Gallagher, & Fullagar, 1995). Additional ways to conceptualize …
Emotional Intelligence Training, Megan Paul
Emotional Intelligence Training, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is emotional intelligence training? Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to abilities or tendencies related to recognizing, understanding, and managing emotions. Because of its connections to important work outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance, and turnover intentions (e.g., Joseph, Jin, Newman, & O’Boyle, 2015; Miao, Humphrey, & Qian, 2016), there has been great interest in developing EI via coaching and training, even though it has not traditionally been regarded as something that is amenable to change through training. EI is conceptualized, and measured, in three different ways (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2005). When it was first conceived, EI was …
Emotional Labor, Tara Myers, Megan Paul
Emotional Labor, Tara Myers, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is emotional labor? Emotional labor is “the management of feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display” as necessary at work (Hochschild, 2012, p. 50). Thus, people engage in emotional labor when they ensure their facial expressions and body language match what is expected for the job (Grandey, 2000). Clear display rules (e.g., always smile, show empathy, stay neutral, seem stern) are most typically seen within service industries (e.g., customer service, protective services, law enforcement). People accomplish this adherence to display rules through surface acting—managing the expression of emotions—or through deep acting—managing the experience of emotions (Hochschild, …
Workaholism, Megan Paul
Workaholism, Megan Paul
Umbrella Summaries
What is workaholism? The term was coined 50 years ago and referred to the uncontrollable need to work incessantly (Oates, 1971). Since then, many different definitions have emerged, with variations related to what exactly workaholism looks like (e.g., degree of enjoyment and engagement), why it occurs (e.g., personality), and its outcomes (e.g., on health, work-life balance), among others (Clark, Smith, & Haynes, 2020). Because many of these approaches confuse workaholism with related but distinct concepts (e.g., causes and effects), the following definition has recently been suggested as a more pure description: 1) an inner pressure or compulsion to work, 2) …