Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons^™

Mammalian Hazards At Small Airports In Indiana: Impact Of Perimeter Fencing, Travis Default, Jacob Kubel, David Glista, Olin E. Rhodes Jr.

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Fences are used at many airports and small airfields to exclude wildlife from entering critical areas. However, not all fences exclude hazardous mammals reliably, and effective fences can be too expensive for small airports to purchase and maintain. In this study, we evaluated fencing at 10 small airports in Indiana and documented the presence and relative abundance of wildlife within airport boundaries using remote cameras and spotlight surveys. Only 4 airports were completely fenced, and four were Odocoileus virginianus) or coyotes (Canis latrans) at nine of the airports with remote cameras and during spotlight surveys. There were fewer …

Historic And Recent Distributions Of Elk In Nebraska, Kent A. Fricke, Michael A. Cover, Scott E. Hygnstrom, Hugh H. Genoways, Scott R. Groepper, Kit Hams, Kurt C. Vercauteren

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Elk (Cervus elaphus) were historically found throughout North America but were extirpated from Nebraska and much of the Great Plains in the 1880s due to consumptive uses by settlers, miners, market hunters, and others. Elk began to reappear in Nebraska in the 1950s and 1960s, and established a stable, nonmigratory population that currently consists of seven herds and an estimated 1,400 individuals throughout western and central Nebraska. The reappearance and subsequent persistence of elk in Nebraska suggests there is adequate habitat to support a self-sustaining population. The general movement of elk eastward may lead to an eventual statewide …

Foods Scraps Composting And Vector Control, Bradley F. Blackwell, Thomas W. Seamans

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Nontraditional waste management facilities, particularly new projects to compost food scraps, are becoming more common because of national and state initiatives to promote recycling and extend landfill capacities. In fact, food waste is the third largest component of generated waste by weight, following yard trimmings and corrugated boxes. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that each American disposes of 1.3 pounds of food waste daily or nearly 474 pounds annually. While there is a clear need to recycle food waste, the location of waste management facilities and national initiatives on waste management are increasingly controversial, partly because of potential …

Physiological Effects Of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Immunocontraception On White-Tailed Deer, Paul D. Curtis, Milo E. Richmond, Lowell A. Miller, Fred W. Quimby

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Before immunocontraceptives can be considered safe to use on wildlife species, potential health risks should be assessed. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) immunocontraceptive has successfully reduced fertility of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus); however, associated deer physiology has rarely been examined. We conducted gross necropsy examinations, histology, and blood chemistry comparisons on euthanized deer previously vaccinated with immunogenic GnRH (n = 18 females and n = 4 males), or left as untreated controls (n = 7 females and n = 6 males). Granulomas were found at injection sites of most deer, even 3 years post-treatment. There were no significant differences in …

Gnrh Immunocontraception Of Male And Female White-Tailed Deer Fawns, Lowell A. Miller, James P. Gionfriddo, Jack C. Rhyan, Kathleen A. Fagerstone, Donald C. Wagner, Gary J. Killian

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Immunocontraceptive vaccines based on gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) have been tested in adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), but their effects on fawns are unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine if early immunization against GnRH would induce a long-lasting immune response in fawns, and if it would delay or prevent sexual development. We gave primary and subsequent booster injections of a KLH-GnRH/Freund’s vaccine to 6 male and 6 female fawns. This vaccine contained the same active ingredients as GonaCon™ vaccine, but it contained Freund’s adjuvant instead of AdjuVac™ adjuvant. Two 450-μg injections were given 1 month apart …

Just Green Iguanas? The Associated Costs And Policy Implications Of Exotic Invasive Wildlife In South Florida, Arthur Sementelli, Henry T. Smith, Walter E. Meshaka Jr., Richard M. Engeman

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Invasive exotic species have begun to emerge as a policy issue at the federal, state, and local levels. Although invasive species are often understood as a function of the damage they cause to localized ecosystems, this study diverges by discussing the infrastructural damage caused by an invasive exotic species, the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Specifically, the authors discuss the magnitude and scope of damage caused by iguana burrows on canals in southern Florida and offer policy recommendations to move discussions of this potentially disastrous public works issue forward.

Estimating Population Size Of Mexican Wolves Noninvasively (Arizona), C. A. Cariappa, Warren Ballard, Stewart W. Breck, Antoinette J. Piaggio, Melissa Neubaum

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Monitoring wolf abundance is a significant problem confronting biologists coordinating the recovery of the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) population in the Blue Range Wolf Recovery Area (BRWRA) in Arizona and New Mexico (Figure 1). Thus far, radiotelemetry has been a satisfactory method. However, collaring and tracking more wolves in the expanding population is expensive. The development of a cost-effective method to estimate Mexican wolf populations will assist the long-term management and recovery of wolves.

We are attempting species and individual identification using DNA extracted from wolf scat because scat is both readily available and easy to collect …

Overwintering Site Selection By Short-Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma Hernandesi) In Northeastern Colorado, Tom Mathies, Daniel J. Martin

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Radio telemetry was used to track 16 adult Short-Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma hernandesi) to their individual overwintering sites on the Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) in Weld County, Colorado. Above-ground habitat characteristics of overwintering sites and randomly selected points within the study area were assessed. All individuals entered overwintering between 29 August and 19 September with a mean estimated entrance date of 7 September. Arrival of the first subzero nighttime air temperatures occurred shortly thereafter on 16 September. No lizard left its normal area of use to overwinter, and there was no tendency to aggregate. Lizards did not necessarily …

Breeding Red-Winged Blackbird Response To Conspecific Models Placed In Pre-Copulatory Position: Implications For Reproductive Control, Laurel L. Moulton, George M. Linz, William J. Bleier

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Sunflower producers in the northern Great Plains are annually plagued by feeding flocks of blackbirds, especially red-winged blackbirds (RWBL). Increased sunflower production and concomitant human-blackbird conflicts have prompted sunflower producers to demand that management strategies be developed to reduce the annual crop losses estimated at ≥ $10 million (Linz et al. 1996). Past techniques aimed at reducing blackbird damage have had varying degrees of success and the annual loss of sunflower remains the same (Peer et al. 2002). Thus, there is a need for new innovative approaches to managing blackbird damage.

One approach is to find non-lethal species-specific methods of …

Comparison Of Electrified Mats And Cattle Guards To Control White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus) Access Through Fences, Thomas W. Seamans, David Helon

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

White-tailed deer pose economic and safety concerns for agricultural and transportation industries that may be addressed by reducing their access to areas of concern. Here, we review research findings relative to the efficacy of an electric mat and cattle guard as means to reduce deer access to protected areas. Intrusions of deer across a prototype electronic mat were reduced an average of 95% from pretreatment levels. Deer intrusions across a simulated cattle guard were reduced by at least 88% from pretreatment levels. Comparisons of other cattle guard studies show that when flat material is used instead of rounded for cross …

Oral Rabies Vaccination Of A Northern Ohio Raccoon Population: Relevance Of Population Density And Prebait Serology, Paul Ramey, Bradley F. Blackwell, Robert Gates, Richard Slemons

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Ohio’s oral rabies vaccination (ORV) program was established to prevent the westward spread of the raccoon (Procyon lotor) rabies virus (Lyssavirus, Rhabdoviridae) in Ohio, USA. The program, which targets raccoons, distributes vaccine-bait units (VBU) at a target density of 75 units/km2. Few studies have examined the relationship of VBU density and target population density to the prevalence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (RVNA). We conducted experimental VBU distributions in August 2003 and August 2004, 150 km west of the ORV zone where there was no history of raccoon rabies. We measured change in RVNA titers in blood …

Bird Use Of Stormwater-Management Ponds: Decreasing Avian Attractants On Airports, Bradley F. Blackwell, Laurence Schafer, David Helon, Michael Linnell

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Characteristics of stormwater-management ponds that contribute to avian hazards to aviation at airports have not been quantified. We selected 30 stormwater-management ponds (average 0.1 ha), approximately 50km from Seattle-Tacoma International Airport, as surrogates to on-airport facilities. We conducted 46 weeks of avian surveys (between 14 February 2005 and 17 February 2006) and evaluated model fit of 6 a priori models relative to pond use by an avian group via Kullback–Leibler information. Our full model, composed of pond surface area (sa), ratio of area of open water to area of emergent and woody vegetation (ow:ew), perimeter irregularity, and geographic isolation, was …

An Integrated Vehicle-Mounted Telemetry System For Vhf Telemetry Applications, Jason Gilsdorf, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Scott E. Hygnstrom, W. David Walter, Justin Boner, Greg Clements

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

We designed and developed a vehicle-mounted very high frequency–based telemetry system that integrated an on-board antenna, receiver, electronic compass, Global Positioning System, computer, and Geographic Information System. The system allows users to accurately and quickly obtain fixes, estimate and confirm locations of radiomarked animals, and immediately record data into an electronic spreadsheet or database. The total cost of materials to build the system was $7,349 (United States currency). Mean error angle of 2.63 ± 12.18 (SD; range =-33.7–42.2°) and mean location error distance of 128 ± 91.3 m (SD; range = 0–408 m) suggested precision and accuracy of our system …

Livestock Protection Dogs For Deterring Deer From Cattle And Feed, Kurt C. Vercauteren, Michael J. Lavelle, Gregory Phillips

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Disease transmission between wildlife and livestock is a worldwide issue. Society needs better methods to prevent interspecies transmission to reduce disease risks. Producers have successfully used livestock protection dogs (LPDs) for thousands of years to reduce predation. We theorized that LPDs raised and bonded with cattle could be used to also reduce risk of bovine tuberculosis (Myobacterium bovis; TB) transmission between white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and cattle by minimizing contact between the 2 species and use of cattle feed by deer. We evaluated 4 LPDs over 5 months, utilizing 2 data collection methods (direct observation and …

Passive Immunity To West Nile Virus Provides Limited Protection In A Common Passerine Species, Nicole M. Nemeth, Paul T. Oesterle, Richard A. Bowen

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Passerine birds have played an important role in the establishment, maintenance, and spread of West Nile virus (WNV) in North America, and some are susceptible to WNV-associated mortality. Characterization of passive transfer of anti-WNV antibodies in passerines is important to understanding transmission and demographic effects of WNV on wild birds. We showed passively acquired maternal antibodies to WNV in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus). Although all seropositive females (N = 18) produced antibody-positive egg yolks, only 20% of seropositive mothers (3/15) produced seropositive chicks. The estimated average half-life of maternal antibodies in chick sera was 3 days, …

Foot-And-Mouth Disease In North American Bison (Bison Bison) And Elk (Cervus Elaphus Nelsoni): Susceptibility, Intra- And Interspecies Transmission, Clinical Signs, And Lesions, Jack Rhyan, Ming Deng, He Wang, Gordon Ward, Thomas Gidlewski, Matthew Mccollum, Samia Metwally, Thomas Mckenna, Sherrilyn Wainwright, Antonio Ramirez, Charles Mebus, Mo Salman

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

There is limited information about the pathogenesis and epidemiology of foot-andmouth disease (FMD) in North American bison (Bison bison) or elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). In these two experimental infection studies, we compared the susceptibilities of bison and elk to FMD virus (FMDV), respectively, with that of cattle; determined whether intra- and interspecies transmission could occur in bison and cattle, and elk and cattle; determined suitability of conventional available laboratory tests to detect FMDV infection in bison and elk; and investigated whether bison or elk are efficient long-term carriers of FMDV. In both studies, after a period …

Mammalian Visitation To Candidate Feral Swine Attractants, Tyler A. Campbell, David B. Long

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Few data exist regarding suitable feral swine (Sus scrofa) attractants in the United States. We compared species-specific visitation and contact rates of mammals to 11 candidate feral swine attractants at scent stations using motion-sensing digital photography to identify promising attractants. We found feral swine had greater visitation rates to apple and strawberry stations than to control stations. We recommend managers consider using strawberry attractants for feral swine-specific applications. If, however, a general feral swine attractant is needed, then apple, berry, or caramel attractants may perform well.

Avoidance Of Hydrolyzed Casein By Mice, Kristin L. Field, Bruce A. Kimball, Julie A. Mennella, Gary K. Beauchamp, Alexander A. Bachmanov

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

When casein, a milk protein, is hydrolyzed, it renders human foods that contain it (e.g., hypoallergenic infant formula, cheeses) distasteful to many people. This rejection of hydrolyzed casein (HC)-containing foods has recently been found to also occur in a non-human species (deer, Odocoileus spp.). Identifying other animals that avoid HC would facilitate understanding how and why HC-containing food is often rejected. This study determined whether HC-containing food is avoided by Mus musculus and whether consumption patterns were sensitive to testing conditions, specifically food form (powder, pellet or dough) and food access (ad libitum or 1.5 h/day following 6 h …

Evaluation Of Stop-Level Vs. Route-Level Breeding Bird Survey Counts For Modeling The Influence Of Land Use And Climate On Breeding Blackbird Abundance In North Dakota, Michelle L. Petersen, George M. Linz, Greg Forcey, Wayne Thogmartin, William J. Bleier

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The Red-winged Blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus), Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), and Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) are the three most abundant blackbird species (Icteridae) found in North Dakota and comprise almost 10% of its avian population (Stewart and Kantrud 1972). Blackbird abundance combined with their food habitats make them significant agricultural pests on sunflower. Cost estimates for blackbird damage to sunflower in the North Dakota are likely over $10 million dollars annually (Kleingartner, pers. comm). Because of this economic impact blackbirds have on agriculture, it is important to understand land use and climatic factors influencing blackbird …

Development Of Polymorphic Microsatellite Loci For The Common Vampire Bat, Desmodus Rotundus (Chiroptera: Phylostomidae), Antoinette J. Piaggio, John J. Johnston, Susan L. Perkins

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) is one of three haematophagous species of bats and the only species in this genus. These New World bats prey on mammals and create significant economic impacts through transmission of rabies in areas where livestock are prevalent. Furthermore, in some portions of their range, it is not uncommon for them to prey upon humans. It is critical to the management of this species and for understanding the spread of bat rabies that detailed studies of D. rotundus population structure be conducted. To further such studies, we have characterized 12 microsatellite loci for …

Food Color, Flavor, And Conditioned Avoidance Among Red-Winged Blackbirds, Scott J. Werner, Bruce A. Kimball, Frederick D. Provenza

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

The relationship between food flavors and postingestive feedback enables mammalian herbivores to procure nutrients and avoid toxins within ever-changing environments. We conducted four experiments with red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in captivity to determine the relative roles of color and flavor cues paired with negative postingestive feedback. We first conducted baseline tests to assess preferences for colors and flavors. All blackbirds preferred red- to blue-colored food, and they preferred umami- (L-alanine) flavored to bitter/astringent food (tannic acid). We observed no difference in consumption of salty (NaCl) vs sour (citric acid) foods during baseline tests (i.e., neutral flavors). We then …

Managing Deer Damage In Nebraska, Scott E. Hygnstrom, Stephen M. Vantassel, Bruce D. Trindle, Kurt C. Vercauteren

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Deer browse a variety of plants, especially when densities are high or forage is limited. This browsing can damage trees, plants, vines, and fruit. This guide discusses how to recognize, manage, and minimize deer damage.

Evaluation Of An Electrified Mat As A White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus) Barrier, Thomas W. Seamans, David A. Helon

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) pose economic and safety problems for agricultural and transportation industries. We tested an electronic mat to determine if it would reduce deer crossing through fence openings. We measured deer intrusions and corn consumption at five sites with charged mats and five sites with non-charged mats. Weekly intrusions at treated sites decreased an average of 95% from pre-treatment. Weekly intrusions at control sites were reduced 60% during weeks 1 and 2 and increased to 10% reduction by week 6. Weekly corn consumption at treated sites decreased from pretreatment through all treatment weeks. Weekly corn consumption …

A Grower’S Guide For Planting Wildlife Conservation Sunflower Plots, George M. Linz, H. Jeffrey Homan, Heath M. Hagy, Jon M. Raetzman, Linda B. Penry, William J. Bleier

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Wildlife conservation sunflower plots (lure plots) are used to protect high value oil and confectionery sunflower. Lure plots are used to draw blackbirds away from commercial fields to reduce sunflower damage. From 2004-2007, USDA Wildlife Services funded a pilot program for growers to plant 20-acre lure plots to test their effectiveness for reducing damage to nearby commercial fields. Damage in the plots ranged from 0% to 100%. We describe here the characteristics of the lure plots that received extensive bird damage. These characteristics provide examples for the proper use of lure plots.

Isolation Of Microsatellite Loci From The Coqui Frog, Eleutherodactylus Coqui, Maureen B. Peters, Karen H. Beard, Cris Hagen, Eric M. O'Neill, Karen E. Mock, William Pitt

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Thirteen microsatellite loci were isolated from the coqui frog (Eleutherodactylus coqui) and optimized for future research. The loci were screened across 37 individuals from two Puerto Rican populations. Loci were variable with the number of alleles per locus ranging from three to 38. Polymorphic information content ranged from 0.453 to 0.963 and observed heterozygosity for each population ranged from 0.320 to 0.920.

Estimating The Efficacy Of Drc-1339-Treated Rice Bait In Blackbird Staging Areas In North Dakota Using A Bioenergetics Simulation, Randal S. Stahl, John J. Johnston, George M. Linz

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

DRC-1339 is a pesticide used to induce mortality in pest birds and is being used successfully to reduce bird damage to a variety of agricultural products. The feasibility of using live decoy traps baited with DRC-1339-treated rice baits is being evaluated for reducing blackbird damage to sunflower in North Dakota. To estimate the take associated with the use of the DRC-1339-treated rice baits, we developed a bioenergetics simulation to estimate bait consumption by red-winged blackbirds, yellow-headed blackbirds and common grackles. This simulation incorporates a module to estimate mortality based on the amount of treated bait eaten by individual birds and …

Avian Use Of Rice-Baited Trays Attached To Cages With Live Decoy Blackbirds In Central North Dakota, Jamison B. Winter, George M. Linz, William J. Bleier

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

For several decades, blackbird depredation of sunflower has been a continuous problem. Sunflower growers consistently place blackbirds in the top tier of problems associated with growing sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Many non-lethal tactics have been employed in an attempt to protect ripening sunflower from foraging flocks of blackbirds. Thinning cattail-choked wetlands to reduce roosting habitat, using pyrotechniques to frighten feeding birds, planting Wildlife Conservation Sunflower Plots to lure birds away from commercial plots, applying taste repellents, and adapting cultural methods such as block planting to synchronize ripening are just a few such tactics. Even so, the numbers of …

The Single-Shot Gnrh Immunocontraceptive Vaccine (GonaconTm ) In White-Tailed Deer: Comparison Of Several Gnrh Preparations, Lowell A. Miller, James P. Gionfriddo, Kathleen A. Fagerstone, Jack C. Rhyan, Gary J. Killian

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Problem: An effective, single-injection, multi-year, GnRH contraceptive agent is needed to control reproduction in overabundant white-tailed deer populations.

Method of study: Two GnRH conjugates, GonaCon^TM (GnRH–KLH) and GonaCon-B^TM (GnRH–blue protein), were prepared in emulsion form as one-injection and two-injection immunocontraceptive vaccine formulations. In addition, the GnRH–KLH protein conjugate was lyophilized and suspended in AdjuVac^TM adjuvant to produce a fifth vaccine formulation. Each formulation was administered to a group of five captive adult female white-tailed deer. Reproductive performance of treated female deer was monitored for 5 years to determine the comparative efficacy of the various treatments.

Results: The …

Skunk Rabies In California (1992–2003)—Implications For Oral Rabies Vaccination, Ray T. Sterner, Ben Sun, Jean B. Bourassa, Robert L. Hale, Stephanie A. Shwiff, Michele T. Jay, Dennis Slate

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Skunk-variant rabies is endemic in California (United States), and the development of oral vaccines and baits to vaccinate skunks is in progress. In 2003, the California Department of Public Health (CDPH) began to quantify the impacts of skunk-variant rabies and to assess the feasibility of using oral rabies vaccination (ORV) as a containment measure. The CDPH rabies case data for skunks were spatially depicted and analyzed using a geographic information system. Statewide, rabid skunks (1992–2003) primarily occurred in seven physiographic regions: Central Coast, North Coast, North Sierra, Sacramento Valley, San Francisco Bay and Delta, San Joaquin Valley, and South Sierra. …

Evaluation Of Aerial Cluster Sampling Of Double-Crested Cormorants On Aquaculture Ponds In Mississippi, Brian S. Dorr, Loren W. Burger Jr., Scott C. Barras

USDA Wildlife Services: Staff Publications

Concern over increasing numbers of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) and their impacts on channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) aquaculture has resulted in increased need for quantitative information to develop and evaluate depredation management efforts. We evaluated aerial surveys in a stratified cluster sampling (SCS) design to estimate and monitor abundance of cormorants on catfish aquaculture ponds in the Yazoo River Basin of Mississippi, USA (hereafter Yazoo Basin). Twice monthly abundance estimates and coefficient of variation during winter averaged 8,128 (n = 29, SE = 1,233) and 33% (n = 29, SE = 0.02), respectively. Counts of cormorants …