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Articles 1 - 30 of 58
Full-Text Articles in Life Sciences
Zooplankton Abundance, Community Composition And Grazing In The James River Estuary (Virginia, Usa), Laura E. Barry
Zooplankton Abundance, Community Composition And Grazing In The James River Estuary (Virginia, Usa), Laura E. Barry
Theses and Dissertations
This study examined the extent to which zooplankton in the James River Estuary (Virginia, USA) exploit the available algal-food resources. Zooplankton abundance, community composition and grazing rates were assessed at three locations which included a site with high algal production (near the VCU Rice Center) and two sites where algal production was lower. Grazing rates were measured by determining the rate of phytoplankton decline (as chlorophyll a) during 48-hour incubation experiments in the presence and absence of zooplankton. Significant differences in zooplankton abundance were observed among the three sites, with the greatest average zooplankton density (434 ± 69 ind/L) occurring …
Examining The Effects Of Penning On Juvenile Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene Carolina Carolina), Nicolas Frederick
Examining The Effects Of Penning On Juvenile Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene Carolina Carolina), Nicolas Frederick
Theses and Dissertations
Box turtle (Terrapene carolina) populations have been declining over the last several decades, and one major cause is increasing urbanization. As a result of habitat fragmentation, wildlife managers are frequently turning to new and alternative management strategies. Traditional box turtle management has included relocation, which has been met with limited success. This study aims to combine these strategies with another less-studied one: forcing turtles to overwinter on site by penning them in an outdoor enclosure. Two sets of juvenile box turtles were released at the Virginia Commonwealth University Rice Center: one penned on site in a pen for one year, …
Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria Citrea) Plumage As An Indicator For Infection: The Relationship Between Haemosporidia Infection And Breast Feather Reflectance In A Neotropical Migrant Passerine, Robert Fithian
Theses and Dissertations
Yellow avian plumage is a direct result of carotenoid pigments obtained in a bird’s diet and may act as an indicator for individual health, parasite resistance, and status. This study describes breast feather reflectance of adult Prothonotary Warblers (Protonotaria citrea) (n=169), insectivorous Neotropical migrant passerines, throughout the Ultraviolet (UV) and human visible light spectra and examines the relationship between Haemosporidia (pathogen causing Avian Malaria) infection and feather reflectance (n=41). Reflectance was characterized using a Principle Component Analysis evaluating Intensity, Brightness, Hue, UV Intensity, UV Brightness, and UV Chroma. UV and visible light reflectance was higher in birds sampled earlier in …
Examination Of Platelet Adhesion By Streptococcus Sanguinis, Brian Mahoney
Examination Of Platelet Adhesion By Streptococcus Sanguinis, Brian Mahoney
Theses and Dissertations
Streptococcus sanguinis is a leading cause of infective endocarditis. Bacterial adhesion to platelets is likely important in the pathogenesis of infective endocarditis. Bacterial cell wall-anchored (Cwa) proteins may mediate this adhesion. To begin to test this hypothesis, S. sanguinis adhesion to platelets was examined in vitro. The requirement of 12 Cwa proteins for S. sanguinis-platelet adhesion was individually assessed, measuring adhesion of purified platelets to polystyrene wells coated with S. sanguinis strain SK36 or 12 isogenic Cwa protein mutants. Significantly fewer platelets adhered to wells coated with one mutant strain, VT1614. However, results of a whole-cell enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) …
The Role Of Cannabinoids And Cannabinoid Receptors In Enteric Neuronal Survival, Yan Li
The Role Of Cannabinoids And Cannabinoid Receptors In Enteric Neuronal Survival, Yan Li
Theses and Dissertations
The Endocannabinoid system has been found in the gastrointestinal tract, where it plays an important role in gut under both physiological and pathological conditions. Although the major effects of cannabinoids in the gut are mediated through effects on enteric neurons, the role of cannabinoids in the enteric nervous system is poorly understood. In the present study, we have used the primary cultures of myenteric ganglia and a newly developed fetal enteric neuronal cell line to identify whether the endocannabinoid, anandamide, affects ganglionic and neuronal survival and the pathways involved. Anandamide had a biphasic effect on ganglionic survival, increasing survival at …
Systematics And Biogeography Of The Didymopanax Group Of Schefflera (Araliaceae), Pedro Fiaschi
Systematics And Biogeography Of The Didymopanax Group Of Schefflera (Araliaceae), Pedro Fiaschi
Theses and Dissertations
Schefflera is the largest genus in the angiosperm family Araliaceae, with about 900 species, of which c. 300 belong to five subgeneric groups in the Neotropical region. Previous phylogenetic studies of Schefflera have been limited to a small number of species from this region, and very little is know about phylogenetic relationships in the Brazilian-centered Didymopanax group of this genus. Therefore, to gain a better understanding of the diversity and evolution of the Didymopanax group of Schefflera, I investigated the systematics of these plants in the broader context of the entire Neotropical clade. The main goals were (1) to investigate …
Sphingolipid-Induced Activation Of The Volume-Sensitive Cl− Current Is Mediated By Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species, Frank Raucci
Sphingolipid-Induced Activation Of The Volume-Sensitive Cl− Current Is Mediated By Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species, Frank Raucci
Theses and Dissertations
Swelling-activated Cl− current (ICl,swell) is an outwardly-rectifying current that plays an important role in cardiac electrical activity, cellular volume regulation, apoptosis, and acts as a potential effector of mechanoelectrical feedback. Persistent activation of ICl,swell has been observed in a number of models of cardiovascular disease. Previously we showed that angiotensin II (Ang II), endothelin-1 (ET-1), endothelial growth factor receptor (EGFR), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by NADPH oxidase (NOX) and mitochondria are involved in the activation of ICl,swell by both osmotic swelling and Beta1 integrin stretch. Sphingolipid metabolism is modulated in several cardiopathologies and because sphingolipids are bioactive lipids …
The Regulation Of Alternative Splicing By Oncogenic Signaling Pathways., Jacqueline Shultz
The Regulation Of Alternative Splicing By Oncogenic Signaling Pathways., Jacqueline Shultz
Theses and Dissertations
In the presented study, we demonstrate that the alternative splicing of caspase 9 was dysregulated in a large percentage of NSCLC tumors and cell lines. These findings led to the hypothesis that survival pathways activated by oncogenic mutation regulated this mechanism. Indeed, the oncogenic PI3-Kinase/Akt pathway was demonstrated to regulate the alternative splicing of caspase 9. Further mechanistic studies demonstrate that multiple Akt isoforms can regulate the alternative splicing of caspase 9 in NSCLC. Akt was additionally shown to mediate the exclusion of the exon 3,4,5,6 cassette of caspase 9 via the phospho-state of the RNA trans-factor, SRp30a. Mutagenesis studies …
The Role Of Porphyromonas Gingivalis Lysine Specific Protease, Kgp In Hemin Transport And Pigment Accumulation, Anuj Phull
Theses and Dissertations
Porphyromonas gingivalis, a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, is implicated as a major etiological agent in the initiation and progression of severe forms of periodontal disease. It has been reported that gingivitis and periodontal disease affect roughly 50.3% and 35% of the adult population, respectively. Therefore, approximately over 85% of the adult population may suffer from some form of gingival disease. Porphyromonas gingivalis, an established periodontopathogen, requires hemin for growth. Although multiple hemin uptake systems appear to be present in this organism, their specific role in hemin uptake and virulence remains unknown. Pigmentation is thought to result from the accumulation of iron …
Ion Channel Modulation By Photocaged Dioctanoyl Pip2, Junghoon Ha
Ion Channel Modulation By Photocaged Dioctanoyl Pip2, Junghoon Ha
Theses and Dissertations
Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) directly regulates electrophysiological activity in a diverse family of ion channels whether the effect is stimulatory or inhibitory. Much has been unveiled about the apparent affinity and modulatory function of PIP2 using a chemically modified dioctanoyl PIP2 (diC8), a membrane delimited cytosolic co-factor in inside-out macropatch experiments. Yet, the scarcity of molecular tools that permit fine external control in whole-cell systems has precluded future studies from probing the physiological role of PIP2 in cells in the presence of a fully intact cytoplasm. Here we introduce light as an external control for PIP2 through photocaging of diC8, and …
Marrying Immunotherapy And Chemotherapy: A Cancer Therapy Based On T Lymphocyte Expansion Augmented By Alternate Gamma Chain Cytokines And Gemcitabine-Mediated Inhibition Of Myeloid Derived Suppressor Cells, Esther Cha
Theses and Dissertations
Successful adoptive immunotherapy (AIT) for cancer relies on the infusion of in vitro expanded, tumor-reactive lymphocytes with a goal of generating productive tumor immunity. Previously, our lab has developed a protocol to activate selectively tumor-reactive T lymphocytes in vitro using two pharmacologic agents, bryostatin-1 and ionomycin. Following the pharmacological stimulation, conventionally, IL-2 is added to stimulate in vitro proliferation. In this report, alternate cytokines from the common cytokine receptor γ-chain family, namely IL-7 and IL-15, were explored as the alternative cytokine supplements. We found that tumor DLN cells activated in vitro with B/I and cultured in IL-7/15 alternate common γ-chain …
Schizophrenia Candidate Genes Study, Grace Lee
Schizophrenia Candidate Genes Study, Grace Lee
Theses and Dissertations
Schizophrenia is a debilitating disorder caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. In this study, we identified candidate genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms from two genome-wide association studies, GAIN and CATIE. Nine SNPs representing four candidate genes were selected for replication studies with our Irish samples: Irish Case-Control Study of Schizophrenia (ICCSS), the Irish Study of High-Density Schizophrenia Families (ISHDSF), and the Irish Trio Study of Schizophrenia (ITRIO). In the ITRIO sample, rs4704591 (CMYA5 gene) showed nominal significance (p = 0.0447947). Combining ICCSS, ISHDSF, and ITRIO samples for rs4704591 increased sample size and power and yielded a p-value …
Evaluation Of Association Of Microrna-122 With Histological Severity Of Recurrent Hcv Infection In Liver Transplant Recipients, Jihee Suh
Theses and Dissertations
Hepatitis C virus recurrence (which is defined by detection of HCV RNA in serum) in post-transplanted liver is universal but the progression of infection remains unpredictable, varying from case to case. It has been estimated that 75%-80% of the HCV recurrence patients will suffer chronic hepatitis C infection and up to a third of them will progress into the development of fibrosis and cirrhosis within 5 years post-transplantation. Therefore, finding ways to predict early on the progression of fibrosis can contribute to better prognoses. Recent literatures have mentioned that the hepatitis C virus relies on the host microRNA-122 (miR-122) for …
Lysophosphatidic Acid Is A Mediator Of Interleukin-6 Production In Ovarian Cancer Cells, David Dang
Lysophosphatidic Acid Is A Mediator Of Interleukin-6 Production In Ovarian Cancer Cells, David Dang
Theses and Dissertations
Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a naturally occurring bioactive lysophospholipid that mediates a broad range of cellular processes such as cell proliferation, survival, migration and invasion. LPA also plays a potential role in human oncogenesis as suggested by elevated expression of its receptors and its producing enzymes in malignant tissues. In the current study, we demonstrated that LPA is a potent mediator of interleukin-6 (IL-6) production in ovarian cancer. IL-6 is a pleiotropic cytokine which is thought to be an important mediator of ovarian cancer development and progression. Here, we demonstrated that IL-6 levels are indeed increased in the plasma of …
Effects Of Biofilm Age And Composition On Oyster Larval Setting, Alaina Hart
Effects Of Biofilm Age And Composition On Oyster Larval Setting, Alaina Hart
Theses and Dissertations
The lack of success in restoring oyster, Crassostrea virginica, populations to Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries has raised many questions about why many restoration efforts have failed. A number of studies have focused on the larval stage of oysters and considered the variables that impact oyster setting behavior in an effort to understand why oyster populations have not recovered. Studies that have examined setting surfaces suggest that biofilms promote oyster larval settlement; however, similar studies with barnacle larvae have found an inhibitory relationship. The present study utilized field-produced biofilms of different ages to determine if natural biofilms inhibit or promote …
Role Of Endothelin-1 In The Regulation Of The Swelling-Activated Cl- Current In Atrial Myocytes, Wu Deng
Role Of Endothelin-1 In The Regulation Of The Swelling-Activated Cl- Current In Atrial Myocytes, Wu Deng
Theses and Dissertations
Swelling-activated Cl- current (ICl,swell) is an outwardly rectifying Cl- current that influences cardiac electric activities and acts as a potential effector of mechanoelectrical feedback that antagonizes the effects of stretch-activated cation channels. Persistent activation of ICl,swell has been observed in multiple models of cardiovascular diseases. Previously we showed that angiotensin II (AngII) signaling and reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by NADPH oxidase (NOX) are involved in the activation of ICl, swell by both beta1-integrin stretch and osmotic swelling. Because endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a potential downstream mediator of AngII and ETA receptor blockade abrogates AngII-induced ROS generation, we studied how ET-1 …
Genetic Differentiation Of The Parasitoid, Cotesia Congregata (Say), Based On Host-Plant Complex, Georgia Karns
Genetic Differentiation Of The Parasitoid, Cotesia Congregata (Say), Based On Host-Plant Complex, Georgia Karns
Theses and Dissertations
Endoparasitoids of herbivorous lepidopterans have intimate relationships with their host species as well as the plant on which their host develops. Characteristics of both hosts and plants can affect parasitoid success in tri-trophic systems and thus, drive diversification. Genetic differentiation was estimated for Cotesia congregata (Say) collected from two distinct host-plant complexes, Manduca sexta L. on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) and Ceratomia catalpae, (Haworth) on catalpa (Catalpa bignonioides Walker), in the mid-Atlantic region of North America using seven microsatellite loci and the mitochondrial COI locus. Microsatellite allele frequencies were differentiated based on host-plant complex, and COI haplotypes from individuals on …
A Cellular Mechanism For Dendritic Spine Loss Following Traumautic Brain Injury In Rat, Brian Low
A Cellular Mechanism For Dendritic Spine Loss Following Traumautic Brain Injury In Rat, Brian Low
Theses and Dissertations
Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability in the United States. The injury is often composed of two processes: the primary injury, which can involve irreversible loss of tissue, and the secondary injury, which involves a cascade of reactive processes such as excitotoxicity that occur in the hours and days after the initial insult. Excitotoxic stimulation of neuronal circuits can lead to cellular dysfunction and modulation of neuronal sensitivity. One mechanism of dysfunction involves the calcium-regulated phosphatase, calcineurin. Calcineurin has been shown to be involved in the modulation of the neuronal post-synaptic structures known as dendritic …
The Regulation Of Platelet Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase By Oxidized Phospholipids, Rachael Griffiths
The Regulation Of Platelet Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase By Oxidized Phospholipids, Rachael Griffiths
Theses and Dissertations
Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase (PAFAH) is elevated in atherosclerosis and may play a role in pathogenesis of this disease. Molecular mechanisms regulating the expression of this lipoprotein-associated PLA2 are indistinct. Mildy oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and monocytes (the primary source of PAFAH) are co-localized in early atheromas. Monocytes are activated by oxidized phospholipids (oxPL) in the oxLDL particle. We hypothesized that oxPL-activated monocytes are the source of increased levels of PAFAH in atherosclerosis. We found that PAFAH expression is significantly induced by OxPAPC and in particular long-chain fractions of oxPAPC in monocytes and cytokine-differentiated DC, but not cytokine-differentiated MO. Furthermore, …
Understanding The Genetic Consequences Of Rapid Range Expansion: A Case Study Using The Invasive Microstegium Vimineum Trin. (Poaceae), Stephen Baker
Understanding The Genetic Consequences Of Rapid Range Expansion: A Case Study Using The Invasive Microstegium Vimineum Trin. (Poaceae), Stephen Baker
Theses and Dissertations
Global temperature changes are predicted to influence the distributions of plants and can have significant consequences for population genetic structure. Both the nature of these consequences and the processes that shape them are of interest for both conservation genetics and the development of realistic management programs. Rapid range expansion occurs on short temporal scales not conducive to conventional phylogeographical analyses. This paper presents the findings from a population genetic study of the invasive grass Microstegium vimineum Trin. A. Camus throughout the James River Basin of Virginia. Genotypic analysis using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) molecular markers were used to test …
Assessment Of Pre-Pcr Whole Genome Amplification Of Single Pollen Grains Using Flowering Dogwood (Cornus Florida), Candace Dillon
Assessment Of Pre-Pcr Whole Genome Amplification Of Single Pollen Grains Using Flowering Dogwood (Cornus Florida), Candace Dillon
Theses and Dissertations
Studies of gene flow in natural plant populations often focus on either historical or abiotic dispersal methods (e.g. wind, water, gravity), but there is little information available on contemporary, animal-mediated pollen dispersal patterns. Emerging molecular laboratory techniques allow unprecedented insights into spatial patterns of pollen-mediated gene flow. However, to date, technical challenges have limited their widespread application. The genome of a pollen grain can be amplified via whole genome amplification (WGA) prior to traditional amplification via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to prevent the stochastic effects associated with low copy number amplification. Even still, WGA can suffer from low success rates …
The Genome Scale Metabolic Model Of Cryptosporidium Hominis: Inv209, Niti Vanee
The Genome Scale Metabolic Model Of Cryptosporidium Hominis: Inv209, Niti Vanee
Theses and Dissertations
The apicomplexan Cryptosporidium is a protozoan parasite of humans and other mammals. Cryptosporidium species cause acute gastro-enteritis and diarrheal disease in healthy humans and animals, and cause life-threatening infection in immuno-compromised individuals such as people with AIDS. It has a one-host life cycle and invades intestinal epithelial cells causing diarrhea, or more rarely the pulmonary epithelium. Cryptosporidium carries out all the asexual reproductive stages like several other apicomplexans. Current annotation of this organism predicts it to contain 3884 genes of which only 1581 genes have predicted functions. By using a combination of bioinformatics analysis, biochemical evidence, and high-throughput data, a …
Adaptation At A Shortened Length In Rabbit Femoral Artery, Melissa Bednarek
Adaptation At A Shortened Length In Rabbit Femoral Artery, Melissa Bednarek
Theses and Dissertations
It is well known that the overlap between the thick and thin filaments in striated muscle is responsible for the single active length-tension (L-T) curve. With the lack of visible striations, a sarcomeric unit has not been identified in smooth muscle. Though once thought to function like striated muscle via a sliding filament mechanism of contraction, recent studies on length-adaptation (L-adaptation) in airway smooth muscle (ASM), in which increased tension is generated with repeated contraction, have led to the hypothesis of a dynamic L-T curve in smooth muscle. Although more established in ASM, two studies have shown L-adaptation in vascular …
Analysis Of Secreted Phosphoprotein-24 And Its Effects During Osteoblast Differentiation In A Mesenchymal Stem Cell Model, Vasquez Jochen Granja
Analysis Of Secreted Phosphoprotein-24 And Its Effects During Osteoblast Differentiation In A Mesenchymal Stem Cell Model, Vasquez Jochen Granja
Theses and Dissertations
Musculoskeletal diseases, in particular osteoporosis, are increasingly becoming more prevalent in the U.S. due to the ageing population (Figure1). It is estimated that one-sixth of 300 million people in U.S. suffer from bone disorders or loss. About 10 million of those people above age 50 suffer from osteoporosis. Patients that suffer from osteoporosis have high morbidity and mortality rates. For instance, patients have decreased bone mineral density (BMD), a measurement of bone density that reflects the strength of bone as represented by calcium content. A decrease in BMD typically leads to an increased risk of bone fractures. In particular, hip …
Synergistic Growth Inhibition And Enhancement Of Cell Death By Combination Of Melanoma Differentiation Associated Gene-7 (Mda-7/Il-24) And Cisplatin In Ovarian Cancer Cell Lines, Renyan Liu
Theses and Dissertations
Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological malignancy among women. The current first-line treatments for ovarian cancer are cisplatin, carboplatin and paclitaxel. However, resistance to these platinum-based drugs occurs in the large majority of initially responsive tumors, resulting in fully chemoresistant, fatal disease. Therefore, the resistance to cisplatin therapy has been a critical hurdle in the management of recurrent ovarian cancer. The mechanisms responsible for cisplatin resistance are not completely understood. In the search for new therapies to overcome/bypass cisplatin resistance, melanoma differentiation gene-7 (MDA-7) IL-24, which is a new cytokine, has anti-cancer efficacy by suppressing cell growth and inducing …
An Evaluation Of Bacterial And Fungal Contributions To Organic Matter Decomposition Along A Soil Moisture Gradient, Morgan Rawls
An Evaluation Of Bacterial And Fungal Contributions To Organic Matter Decomposition Along A Soil Moisture Gradient, Morgan Rawls
Theses and Dissertations
The decomposition of plant litter is a critical biological function that aids in nutrient cycling and energy transfers within and between ecosystems. The primary decomposers of dead leaf material are bacteria and fungi, though there is no consensus as to which of these groups is dominant, nor is it known how the abundance and composition of these communities changes over time. The objectives of this study were to examine the relative contributions of bacterial and fungal populations to leaf organic matter (OM) decomposition and to consider the effect of moisture availability on the microbial community. The study was conducted across …
Intracellular Targets Of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate, Graham Michael Strub
Intracellular Targets Of Sphingosine-1-Phosphate, Graham Michael Strub
Theses and Dissertations
The bioactive lipid mediator sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) has emerged as a key regulator of a variety of important physiological functions, including cell growth, cell survival, cell motility, angiogenesis, lymphocyte trafficking, and mast cell function. S1P is formed by two different sphingosine kinases (SphKs) and binds to a family of 5 differentially expressed G-protein coupled receptors (S1PRs). The majority of research to date has focused on the activation of these receptors, but there is compelling evidence to suggest that S1P exerts intracellular functions independent of S1PRs. However no bona fide intracellular targets of S1P have been identified. In my dissertation, I have …
Sphingosine Kinase 1 Inhibitor, A Novel Inducer Of Autophagy, Daniel Meza
Sphingosine Kinase 1 Inhibitor, A Novel Inducer Of Autophagy, Daniel Meza
Theses and Dissertations
Autophagy is the process of “cell self-eating” which has been implicated both in cell survival and cell death. Sphingosine kinase 1 (SphK1) regulates the intracellular balance between ceramide and sphingosine, bioactive lipids associated with cell death, and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), whose actions are associated with survival and proliferation. Previous studies have implicated upregulation of SphK1 in the induction of autophagy. In this study, SK1-I, a SphK1 specific competitive inhibitor, induced autophagy in a concentration and time dependent manner in HCT116 colorectal carcinoma cells. This autophagic response was observed to be more intense in wild type p53 expressing HCT116 cells than in …
Presence Of Haemosporidia And Flaviviruses In Breeding Prothonotary Warblers (Protonotaria Citrea): An Analysis Of Spatial And Temporal Trends In Infection Prevalence And Associations With Reproductive Success, Elena Grillo
Theses and Dissertations
As Neotropical migratory birds, Prothonotary Warblers are exposed to parasites in both tropical and temperate regions and may act as dispersal agents between geographic areas. This study identifies the prevalence of Haemosporidia, West Nile Virus (WNV), and St. Louis Encephalitis virus (SLEV) in this species. A total of 71.6% of captured Prothonotary Warblers were infected with Haemosporidia during the 2008 breeding season, and infection prevalence increased throughout the season. This temporal change in prevalence is likely due to infection relapse and transmission of new infections. No correlations between reproductive effort and infection status were observed, nor were any associations between …
Investigating The Role Of Electric Fields In Directing Schwann Cell Behavior, Nishant Magar
Investigating The Role Of Electric Fields In Directing Schwann Cell Behavior, Nishant Magar
Theses and Dissertations
This study examines the potential of Schwann cells (SCs) to be manipulated by electric fields (EFs) in order to improve recovery from spinal cord injury (SCI). It had long been believed that the central nervous system (CNS) is incapable of regeneration, but recent studies have proven otherwise. SC transplants are known to be useful in promoting axon regeneration after SCI, but is not sufficient for functional recovery. EFs are known to exist in vivo, and have been known to drastically affect the morphology and behavior of cells in various tissues. It was the hypothesis of this study that the conditioning …