Law Commons^™

Industrial Hemp: Canada Exports, United States Imports, Courtney N. Moran Ll.M.

Courtney N. Moran LL.M.

Industrial hemp, a non-psychoactive variety of Cannabis sativa L., (C. sativa) is the greatest renewable resource available to mankind. Industrial hemp is an environmentally friendly crop that does not require herbicides or pesticides and can clean up toxins in soil. Manufacturers can produce hemp into over 25,000 products.

More than 30 industrialized nations, including Canada, cultivate industrial hemp for commercial purposes. Despite the fact that industrial hemp is a viable agricultural commodity, in the United States hemp is classified as marihuana, a Schedule I controlled substance, under the Controlled Substances Act (CSA). Therefore, it is illegal under U.S. federal law …

Why Does Executive Greed Prevail In The United States And Canada But Not In Japan? The Pattern Of Low Ceo Pay And High Worker Welfare In Japanese Corporations, Alberto R. Salazar V.

Alberto R. Salazar V.

According to a list of the 200 most highly-paid chief executives at the largest U.S. public companies in 2013, Oracle’s Lawrence J. Ellison remained the best paid CEO and earned $96.2 million as total annual compensation last year. He has received $1.8 billion over the past 20 years. The lowest paid on the same list is General Motors’ D. F. Akerson who earned $11.1 million. The average national pay for a non-supervisory US worker was $51,200 last year and a CEO made 354 times more than an average worker in 2012. Hunter Harrison, Canadian Pacific Railway Ltd., was the best …

An Anachronism Too Discordant To Be Suffered: A Comparative Study Of Parliamentary And Presidential Approaches To Regulation Of The Death Penalty, Derek R. Verhagen

Derek R VerHagen

It is well-documented that the United States remains the only western democracy to retain the death penalty and finds itself ranked among the world's leading human rights violators in executions per year. However, prior to the Gregg v. Georgia decision in 1976, ending America's first and only moratorium on capital punishment, the U.S. was well in line with the rest of the civilized world in its approach to the death penalty. This Note argues that America's return to the death penalty is based primarily on the differences between classic parliamentary approaches to regulation and that of the American presidential system. …

Enforcing International Law: States, Ios, And Courts As Shaming Reference Groups, Roslyn Fuller, Sandeep Gopalan

Roslyn Fuller

We seek to answer the question as to whether international law imposes meaningful constraints on state behaviour. Unabated drone strikes by the dominant superpower in foreign territories, an ineffective United Nations, and persistent disregard for international law obligations, as evidenced by states killing their own citizens, all suggest that the sceptics have won the debate about whether international law is law and whether it affects state behaviour. We argue that such a conclusion would be in error because it grossly underestimates the complex ways in which IL affects state behaviour. We argue that scholars who claim that the lack of …

Equality Qua Equality: A Comparative Critique Of The Tiers Of U.S. Equal Protection Doctrine, Lorenzo Di Silvio

Lorenzo Di Silvio

On February 23, 2011, the Obama Administration announced that it would no longer defend the constitutionality of the Defense of Marriage Act. Of great significance in this announcement was the Administration’s position that classifications on the basis of sexual orientation warrant heightened judicial scrutiny. Notwithstanding this announcement, the level of review applied to sexual-orientation classifications—and the manner in which a court determines whether a particular type of classification deserves more searching review—is an open question, the answer to which typically dictates the outcome of challenges to government classifications. Apart from this outcome determinativeness, affording heightened scrutiny to some classifications but …

Climate Change Litigation: Potential Reasons Canada Lags Behind The United States, Morgan Mcdonald

Morgan McDonald

Despite the overwhelming evidence that climate change threatens our environmental security, governments have neglected to enact comprehensive legislation regulating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the political realm has failed to act, climate litigants have turned to the judicial branch to force GHG reform. Although the US and Canada support similar GHG emitting corporations and have similar legal systems, their experience in climate litigation is strikingly different. While US courts have seen approximately five hundred climate change actions, Canada has seen only two cases. The remarkable absence of climate litigation in Canada is concerning because these actions play an essential role …

A New And Improved Energy Reality—It's No Pipedream, Daniel Hare

Daniel Hare

In this paper, I propose an original policy solution to the complicated issue of permitting and regulatory review for cross-border natural resource projects to allow for a smoother, quicker approval process for certain types of projects. I have specifically designed this new procedure so as to focus on political compromise and minimize political partisanship, while instead concentrating on achieving results. By modifying the current regulatory standard to a more streamlined model, deserving cross-border natural resource projects can swiftly gain approval, yet environmental, economic, foreign policy, national security, and other significant concerns will still receive the attention and thorough evaluation they …

Swimming Upstream: Negotiating Music Licenses For Interactive Streaming In The United States And Canada. How Copyrights Holders Can Participate In New Media And Still Protect Their Rights., Daniela Paola Oliva

Daniela Oliva

This article compares the music licensing process for interactive streaming in Canada and the United States. Unbeknownst to many, the process of acquiring a music license for interactive streaming in Canada and the United States is similar.

The unique portion of this article discusses the reasons why Canada may not have been the primary destination for interactive streaming companies. The article also discusses the benefits and windfalls of interactive streaming. Ultimately, copyright holders have the ability to negotiate with interactive streaming companies to attempt to receive a fair licensing rate. This article emphasizes that copyright holders should familiarize themselves with …

Primitive Accumulation And Enclosure Of The Commons: Genetically Engineered Seeds And Canadian Jurisprudence, Wilhelm Peekhaus

Wilhelm Peekhaus

This paper juxtaposes the legal decisions made in the case of Percy Schmeiser, who was sued by Monsanto for patent infringement, against the attempt by the Organic Agriculture Protection Fund to obtain class certification in its efforts to sue Monsanto and Bayer for genetic contamination of organic canola. Together these two cases establish an unacceptable incongruity at common law between the rights enjoyed by intellectual property owners and any corresponding duties that might attach to their inventions. I suggest that Marx’s concept of primitive accumulation offers a suitable theoretical register for apprehending contemporary erosions of the commons through the enclosure …

Property On The Borderline: A Comparative Analysis Of The Legal Status Of Animals In Canada And The United States, Maneesha D. Deckha

Maneesha D Deckha

This Article reviews recent animal-related law reform in the United States in the areas of criminal, tort, family, and estate laws, and juxtaposes these developments with the current state of similar areas of law in Canada. While neither country may be described as “animal-friendly,” the article suggests that the United States is far more willing to challenge the traditional classification of animals as property at least where companion animals are concerned. Canada, in contrast, has remained essentially conservative, failing to engage with the posthumanist questions revisiting animals’ legal status as property that have begun to emerge in American jurisprudence. The …

Judicial Independence In Light Of The Basic Principles On The Independence Of The Judiciary: Who Has The Right Idea?, Ubaid Ul-Haq

Ubaid ul-Haq

Judicial independence is a crucial component inherent in the proper and effective administration of any government. Critical to this doctrine is the larger requirement of a separation of powers, which must be established before attempting to affect any concept of judicial independence. Judicial independence essentially represents a judiciary’s ability to render decisions free of improper influences, both internal and external. The United Nations has set forth a minimum standard of judicial independence with which States should seek to comply in order to protect civil liberties and in a greater sense, human rights. Evaluating the jurisdictions of Canada, Jamaica, and the …

Environmental Mitigation Aspects Of Water Resources In Geothermal Development: Using A Comparative Approach In Building A Law And Policy Framework For More Sustainable Water Management Practices In Canada, Kamaal Zaidi

Kamaal Zaidi

This paper examines environmental mitigation measures for water resources in the context of geothermal energy development among selected jurisdictions of the United States and New Zealand in the hopes of recommending a law and policy framework in Canada. These common law jurisdictions are chosen to reveal advances in the emerging area of geothermal law and policy. First, the geothermal energy process is explained, followed by a discussion of the legal aspects of geothermal energy development. Second, the benefits of geothermal law and policy are assessed from the experiences of the U.S. and New Zealand in terms of environmental mitigation measures …

Decentralizing Family: An Inclusive Proposal For Individual Tax Filing In The United States, Anthony C. Infanti

Anthony C. Infanti

The debate in the United States over individual versus joint federal income tax filing is at something of a crossroads. For decades, progressive — and, particularly, feminist — scholars have urged us to abolish the joint return in favor of individual filing. On the rare occasion when scholars have described what such an individual filing system might look like, the focus has been on the ways in which the traditional family must be accommodated in an individual filing system. These descriptions generally do not take into account — let alone remedy — the tax system’s ongoing failure to address the …

What Ever Happened To Canadian Environmental Law?, Stepan Wood, Georgia Tanner, Benjamin J. Richardson

Stepan Wood

This Article examines the history of Canadian environmental law to explain why it has become a laggard in both legal reform and environmental performance. Canadian environmental law has long been of interest to scholars worldwide, yet its record is often poorly understood. The Article contrasts recent developments with the seemingly progressive initiatives of the 1970s, and analyzes these trends in light of their political, economic, and governance context, as well as the wider critiques of environmental law. It argues that there is considerable room for Canadian governments to adopt more robust methods of environmental law, including following pioneering reforms advanced …

New Zealand's Approach To Dishonesty, Alex Steel

Alex Steel

This is an updated and abridged version of an earlier article "The Meanings of Dishonesty in Theft" Common Law World Review 38 (2009): 103-136( http://works.bepress.com/alex_steel/17) . It compares New Zealand, English, Canadian and Australian meanings of dishonesty in theft.

The North American Great Lakes, Noah D. Hall

Noah D Hall

The Great Lakes are a vast resource shared by two countries, ten states and provinces, and hundreds of Indian tribes or First Nations. They are the quintessential commons that have seen their share of tragedies. Addressing competing pressures of economic development and environmental protection is only part of the challenge. The real struggle has been governance: How is management of an international transboundary resource best accomplished under the legal and political limitations of constitutional federalism? This chapter analyses the international agreements, court decisions, interstate compacts, and federal statutes that created a transboundary water regime, considering in detail the Great Lakes– …

Proportionality In The Criminal Law: The Differing American Versus Canadian Approaches To Punishment, Roozbeh (Rudy) B. Baker

Roozbeh (Rudy) B. Baker

The focus of this Article shall be upon the Eighth Amendment of the United States Constitution and s. 12 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, both of which prohibit “cruel and unusual punishment”; and their effect on mandatory criminal sentencing (via penal statute) in the two countries. The Article shall begin by briefly explain the differences between the jurisdictional application of criminal justice in the United States and Canada. The Article will next present and explain the American Eighth Amendment approach to the constitutionality of mandatory criminal sentencing and contrast this to the Canadian s. 12 approach to …

Research In The Biotech Age: Can Informational Privacy Compete?, Wilhelm Peekhaus

Wilhelm Peekhaus

This paper examines the privacy of personal medical information in the health research context. Arguing that biomedical research in Canada has been caught up in the government’s broader neo-liberal policy agenda that has positioned biotechnology as a strategic driver of economic growth, the author discusses the tension between informational privacy and the need for medical information for research purposes. Consideration is given to the debate about whether privacy for medical information serves or hinders the ‘public good’ in respect of medical research, and to discussions of informed consent as an element of ‘fair information practices’ designed to safeguard the privacy …

Personal Health Information In Canada: A Comparison Of Citizen Expectations And Legislation, Wilhelm Peekhaus

Wilhelm Peekhaus

This paper explores whether the Canadian legislative protections in place to safeguard medical privacy meet the expectations of Canadians. An overview of current governance systems designed to protect the privacy of personal health information at both the federal and provincial levels is first presented. This is followed by an empirical analysis of the results of a public opinion survey conducted to determine Canadian attitudes about medical privacy, particularly genetic privacy. The analysis highlights areas where legislation and public opinion converge and diverge.

Litigating Canada-U.S. Transboundary Harm, Austen L. Parrish, Shi-Ling Hsu

Austen L. Parrish

This Article joins a spirited debate ongoing among international law scholars. Numerous articles have debated the changing nature of interna-tional law and relations: the impact of globalization, the decline of territorial-sovereignty, the ever important role that non-state actors play, and the growing use of domestic laws to solve transboundary problems. That scholarship, however, often speaks only in general theoretical terms, and has largely ignored how these changes are playing out in countries outside the United States in way that impact American interests. This Article picks up where that scholarship leaves off. It examines one of the perennial challenges for international …

Patent Eligible Subject Matter In The Biotechnological Arts, Benjamin A. Keim

Benjamin A Keim

This paper compares the patentability of biotechnology inventions under the laws of the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Five specific categories of biotechnology are examined: genes and DNA, microorganisms, plants and animals, human embryonic stem cells, and medical methods. The WTO-TRIPS agreement establishes the underlying framework followed by these countries. All of these counties allow patenting of genes and DNA as well as microorganisms. Plant and animal patents are allowed in all the countries except Canada. Surgical and medical methods are only patentable in the U.S. and Australia. Human embryonic cells are patentable in all jurisdictions, except for …

The Evolving Role Of Citizens In United States-Canadian International Environmental Law Compliance, Noah D. Hall

Noah D Hall

Citizen participation is critical in environmental law compliance. While citizens often have a major role in advancing compliance with domestic environmental law, citizens have historically had a much more limited role in international environmental law. However, a new model is emerging North America. The role of citizens in United States-Canadian international environmental law compliance has expanded greatly over the past several decades. Beginning in the 1970’s with increased public participation in binational governance agreements and expanding in the past two decades to formal roles in monitoring implementation of international environmental agreements, citizen participation is now central in the United States-Canadian …

Transboundary Pollution: Harmonizing International And Domestic Law, Noah D. Hall

Noah D Hall

Addressing transnational pollution requires both international and domestic law. Transnational pollution is an international problem that demands and deserves the attention of international legal mechanisms such as treaties, agreements, arbitration, and international management and governance. At the same time, transnational pollution problems can often be addressed more effectively and efficiently through the domestic legal system. An ideal approach is to harmonize transnational pollution management and dispute resolution under international and domestic law. This article seeks to provide pragmatic, feasible, and politically realistic solutions to transnational pollution by harmonizing international and domestic law. However, given the diversity in geography, domestic legal …

New Governance, Compliance, And Principles-Based Securities Regulation, Cristie L. Ford

Cristie L. Ford

The UK securities regulator, the Financial Services Authority, claims that its "principles-based" approach to securities regulation is simply "better" than what it characterizes as the prescriptive, rules-based American approach. The striking shift in financial sector business from New York to London over the last two years has brought the question of the wisdom of principles-based regulation into sharp relief. In fact, an FSA-style regulatory approach may also be taking hold in Canada, through the agency of the province of British Columbia. This paper examines BC's innovative proposals for a principles-based securities regime through the lens of New Governance theory. I …

Bilateral Breakdown: U.S. – Canada Pollution Disputes, Noah D. Hall

Noah D Hall

The United States and Canada have one of the strongest bilateral relationships in the world, and the history of cooperation and diplomacy on environmental matters has been a major part of their relationship. However, as some recent efforts to resolve U.S.- Canadian pollution disputes through diplomacy and international law have failed, environmental advocates have looked to domestic litigation in U.S. courts to vindicate their rights. Is this a welcome development for environmental protection or a troubling trend for bilateral diplomacy? This essay explores the recent developments with a historical perspective and provides some recommendations for balancing the competing interests of …

How Restrictive Terms And Technologies Backfired On Sony Bmg , Jeremy F. De Beer

Jeremy de Beer

This short paper addresses the issue of restrictive contractual terms and digital rights management technologies in the music industry, using the recent controversy surrounding Sony BMG Music as a case study. The issues are discussed mainly from a Canadian perspective. Part I provides an overview of the factual and technical background to this story. Part II contains an analysis of the legal consequences of Sony BMG's actions, and offers some insights as to the policy implications for consumer protection, contract and copyright laws.

Personal Medical Information: Privacy Or Personal Data Protection? A Theoretical Approach To Understanding The Canadian Environment, Wilhelm Peekhaus

Wilhelm Peekhaus

No abstract provided.

The Role Of Levies In Canada's Digital Music Market , Jeremy F. De Beer

Jeremy de Beer

Parties not directly involved in the use of copyright-protected music have increasingly become the targets of established or proposed schemes to provide revenues for the music industry. It has been suggested that rather than obtaining payments directly from consumers or distributors of digital music in exchange for licenses to use or transmit that music, levies should be imposed on the goods and services of third parties, such as recording media, digital devices and/or Internet access. This paper considers whether levies are an appropriate way to deal with the challenges and opportunities that are arising in Canada's digital music market.

Traditional …

Constitutional Jurisdiction Over Paracopyright Laws , Jeremy F. De Beer

Jeremy de Beer

This paper considers whether the Government of Canada's proposed legislation addressing technological protection measures and rights management information would be constitutionally valid federal law and examines the provinces' role in the debate over these copyright reforms. The Constitution allocates exclusive legislative responsibility for various matters to either the federal or provincial governments. The constitutionality of the proposed provisions turns on their pith and substance, which seems to involve technological and contractual controls over terms of distribution of digital materials. For a list of reasons, qualifications on the legal effects, intended to tether the legislation to existing copyright doctrine, may not …

Study Of Canadian Health Policy Research Centres: Final Report, Michele L. Mekel, Samuel Shortt

Michele L Mekel

With today’s escalating demands for accountability, Canada’s academic-linked health policy centres are feeling pressure from key funders to prove their effectiveness. At the same time, their contributions through applied health services and policy research and knowledge-transfer activities have become increasingly critical to health policy development and decision making.

To assist in easing the tension, this study identifies key operational success strategies so individual centres can adopt those that are most suited to their particular structural model. Furthermore, this study documents the challenges shared by centres so that they can jointly develop tools and solutions. Utilizing the findings in these ways, …