Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Discipline
-
- Curriculum and Instruction (18)
- Higher Education (8)
- Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research (6)
- Educational Leadership (5)
- Elementary Education (4)
-
- Language and Literacy Education (4)
- Social and Behavioral Sciences (4)
- Arts and Humanities (3)
- Information Literacy (3)
- Library and Information Science (3)
- Special Education and Teaching (3)
- Teacher Education and Professional Development (3)
- Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education (2)
- Early Childhood Education (2)
- Educational Administration and Supervision (2)
- Educational Methods (2)
- Educational Psychology (2)
- Higher Education Administration (2)
- Higher Education and Teaching (2)
- Instructional Media Design (2)
- Online and Distance Education (2)
- Other Education (2)
- Physical Sciences and Mathematics (2)
- Religion (2)
- Science and Mathematics Education (2)
- Archival Science (1)
- Art Education (1)
- Catholic Studies (1)
- Dance (1)
- Institution
-
- Walden University (5)
- Liberty University (3)
- City University of New York (CUNY) (2)
- Georgia Southern University (2)
- Grand Valley State University (2)
-
- Kansas State University Libraries (2)
- Loyola University Chicago (2)
- St. John's University (2)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (2)
- Bowling Green State University (1)
- Brigham Young University (1)
- California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo (1)
- Columbus State University (1)
- Dominican University of California (1)
- East Tennessee State University (1)
- Fayetteville State University (1)
- Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School (1)
- Marshall University (1)
- Montclair State University (1)
- Old Dominion University (1)
- SUNY Buffalo State University (1)
- Seton Hall University (1)
- Tennessee State University (1)
- Texas A&M University-San Antonio (1)
- University of Massachusetts Boston (1)
- University of South Carolina (1)
- Western Michigan University (1)
- Western University (1)
- Publication
-
- Theses and Dissertations (6)
- Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies (5)
- Doctoral Dissertations and Projects (3)
- Education: School of Education Faculty Publications and Other Works (2)
- Georgia International Conference on Information Literacy (2)
-
- Open Educational Resources (2)
- Academic Chairpersons Conference Proceedings (1)
- Computer Science and Software Engineering (1)
- Culminating Experience Projects (1)
- Education | Master's Theses (1)
- Electronic Theses and Dissertations (1)
- Graduate Doctoral Dissertations (1)
- Honors Projects (1)
- Journal of Catholic Education (1)
- Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education (1)
- Journal of Mathematics and Science: Collaborative Explorations (1)
- Journal of Research Initiatives (1)
- Kansas Library Association College and University Libraries Section Proceedings (1)
- Masters Theses (1)
- New Jersey English Journal (1)
- Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs) (1)
- Special Education Faculty Publications (1)
- Teaching & Learning Faculty Publications (1)
- Teaching and Learning Faculty Research (1)
- Teaching/Writing: The Journal of Writing Teacher Education (1)
- Theses, Dissertations and Capstones (1)
- Undergraduate Student Research Internships Conference (1)
- Publication Type
Articles 1 - 30 of 41
Full-Text Articles in Education
In With The Old: Encouraging Archives Use With Innovative Faculty Outreach, Kimberly Veliz, Ronald Rozzell
In With The Old: Encouraging Archives Use With Innovative Faculty Outreach, Kimberly Veliz, Ronald Rozzell
Kansas Library Association College and University Libraries Section Proceedings
In order to encourage archives usage, an instruction librarian and archivist at a small community college collaborated to design an interactive instruction session for faculty. The session was to use breakout boxes to demonstrate how to incorporate archival materials into classroom activities at an institution wide professional development workshop event. Plans for an in-person breakout box session were scrapped after the COVID-19 Omicron wave forced workshops online. After designing and carrying out an online archives introduction, the session was reconfigured back into an in-person session utilizing breakout boxes. Despite lower-than-expected attendance, the innovative outreach made faculty and staff aware of …
Reinforcement Practicality For Middle School Students: A Meta-Analysis, Kelly C. Dreger Ed.D., Steve Downey Ph.D.
Reinforcement Practicality For Middle School Students: A Meta-Analysis, Kelly C. Dreger Ed.D., Steve Downey Ph.D.
Journal of Inquiry and Action in Education
The need for evolving support interventions that can help students in a wide range of settings is an ongoing requirement for middle schools today. Token reinforcement, which is a form of extrinsic motivation and incentivization, is studied within this meta-analysis to determine if significant treatment effects exist overall and if there are studies that show more gains than others. Most studies report significant positive gains individually, but the statistical significance is lost when the studies are reviewed as a whole. Variables such as sample size requirements, treatment effect variation, and session time all influence treatment effect size. Reinforcement has been …
Catholic Theological And Equity Framework To Champion Hispanic Representation In Catholic Schools, Jorge Pena, John Reyes, Michael T. O'Connor
Catholic Theological And Equity Framework To Champion Hispanic Representation In Catholic Schools, Jorge Pena, John Reyes, Michael T. O'Connor
Education: School of Education Faculty Publications and Other Works
How do Catholic schools create inclusive, equitable environments that embrace the identities of their students, including their race, ethnicity, and culture? What does Catholic theological spirituality say about diversity, equity, and inclusion to address racism? What is the connection between Catholic theological spirituality and equitable school practices to bring about equity in Catholic schools? In response to increased diversity of students, educators, communities, and societal challenges, there is a need for a framework for Catholic schools with a culturally diverse student body, or with a student body and staff with different cultures. We synthesize Catholic theological spirituality and research about …
The Application Of Praxis In High School Classrooms: A Qualitative Case Study, Tonia R. Maher
The Application Of Praxis In High School Classrooms: A Qualitative Case Study, Tonia R. Maher
Doctoral Dissertations and Projects
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the application of educational research-based instructional methods by teachers in public secondary high school classrooms in Colorado. The use of educational research-based instructional methods will be defined as praxis. Bruner’s constructivist theory of learning and instruction guided this study. This qualitative case study employed an epistemological perspective that provided the framework for predicting, describing, empowering, and deconstructing worldviews by increasing the knowledge that leads to further understanding of the application of praxis in public secondary high school classrooms. The setting was Colorado public high schools. Data were collected from interviews, …
Social Distancing: Closing The Gap Between Digital And Social Media Literacy Practices And Literacy Instruction, Rachel Besharat-Mann
Social Distancing: Closing The Gap Between Digital And Social Media Literacy Practices And Literacy Instruction, Rachel Besharat-Mann
New Jersey English Journal
As adolescents increasingly navigate texts through digital and social media, educators have the crucial task of understanding text production and consumption and bridging these literacy practices into classrooms. This article will discuss the different skill components for digital and social media literacy and application in the classroom.
Teacher Education In The Arts Before, During, And After The Covid-19 Pandemic, Jake E. Knight
Teacher Education In The Arts Before, During, And After The Covid-19 Pandemic, Jake E. Knight
Undergraduate Student Research Internships Conference
The purpose of this research is to construct a detailed picture of teacher education in the arts within Ontario, with a specific focus on the Primary-Junior arts discipline. This project will survey publicly-funded educational institutions in order to create a baseline of information on arts teacher education. This foundational information will allow for differences to be identified between pre-service teacher arts programs, and will also initiate a dialogue as to whether or not arts programs are equitably administered throughout the province. Moreover, this project will examine the professional practices of teacher educators in the arts before, during, and after the …
Multimodal Vocabulary Instruction: An Approach For Supporting Reading Comprehension, Mary K. Van Singel
Multimodal Vocabulary Instruction: An Approach For Supporting Reading Comprehension, Mary K. Van Singel
Masters Theses
Children bring a wide range of vocabulary knowledge and prior experiences with them when they enter school. Research suggests that in order to bridge childrens’ word knowledge and the word knowledge needed for academic success, teachers must take on a multimodal instructional approach to foster vocabulary development and reading comprehension in students. This project explores how word knowledge develops in children as well as various research based features of vocabulary instruction to support word learning in the classroom. The project is designed to offer teachers professional development that works to grow teacher expertise for what effective vocabulary instruction is, the …
Diversity In Educational Resources, Samantha Mae Howe
Diversity In Educational Resources, Samantha Mae Howe
Culminating Experience Projects
Educational resources need to be more diverse to better reflect the populations of classroom communities. Students identifying as Lesbian Gay Bisexual and/or Transgender (LGBT), girls and women, and students from ethnically and/or racially marginalized communities are affected by the classroom content they consume and are taught. This project focuses on the impacts of diversity in educational resources and how intersectional Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRT) can alleviate the harmful impacts of a one-sided narrative in curriculum. The unit plan included at the end of the project details how teachers can embed diversity into content curriculum and include diverse perspectives while effectively …
Successful Impoverished Schools: What Are The Existing Conditions In High Poverty Schools That Have A Higher Than Average Proficiency Rate?, Mitchell Winn Nerdin
Successful Impoverished Schools: What Are The Existing Conditions In High Poverty Schools That Have A Higher Than Average Proficiency Rate?, Mitchell Winn Nerdin
Theses and Dissertations
Proficiency levels in schools often correlate with the poverty levels of schools. However, in 2018 three schools in Utah beat the state average proficiency rate on all three of Utah's end of year summative English language arts, mathematics, and science exams. These high scores provide evidence that schools are not necessarily limited by poverty in helping students succeed academically. By examining the schools that beat the state average on at least one exam, this study describes the conditions that were in play, which contributed to their students' academic achievement. A description is given of the conditions in the schools that …
Faculty, Ferpa, And Covid-19, Marina Kaplan-Iosim
Faculty, Ferpa, And Covid-19, Marina Kaplan-Iosim
Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs)
This qualitative case study was conducted to understand the experiences of ten faculty participants at a private, not-for-profit, 4-year degree-granting, high research institution located in the Northeast United States, who needed to change from in-person instruction to remote teaching due to COVID-19 during Spring 2020, as they prepared to protect student privacy while teaching online. In addition, this study sought to better understand how faculty were protecting and sharing student data, PII, and other personal information during that time. Data for this study was collected through semi-structured interviews. Narrative methods informed my choice of interviewing because this method provided a …
From Writer To Teacher: The Gradual Release Of Responsibility In An Early Childhood Education Writing Course For Pre-Service Teachers, Denise N. Morgan, Danielle G. Gruhler, Kristen I. Evans
From Writer To Teacher: The Gradual Release Of Responsibility In An Early Childhood Education Writing Course For Pre-Service Teachers, Denise N. Morgan, Danielle G. Gruhler, Kristen I. Evans
Teaching/Writing: The Journal of Writing Teacher Education
Teaching students to become confident, capable writers is imperative in today’s world. Growing attention has been paid to the amount and kinds of writing students are experiencing in schools with an urgent plea for more time and attention given to writing instruction (Nagin, 2003; National Commission on Writing, 2003). Yet, few teachers feel well prepared to teach writing.
In this special issue on writing methods courses, we discuss the evolution of our writing methods course for early childhood preservice teachers (PK-5). Specifically, we examine the current pedagogical practices within the course to support preservice teachers’ experiential learning. This piece examines …
Faculty Perspectives On Online Teaching In Higher Education: A Qualitative Approach To Understand Faculty Members’ Challenges And Experiences, Felix O. Quayson
Faculty Perspectives On Online Teaching In Higher Education: A Qualitative Approach To Understand Faculty Members’ Challenges And Experiences, Felix O. Quayson
Journal of Research Initiatives
This study explored faculty members' perspectives on online teaching in higher education and described, analyzed, and interpreted faculty members challenges and experiences of teaching online courses. Participants were twelve (12) faculty members who have taught online courses or currently teach online courses. Data was collected from 60-minutes semi-structured interview sessions, 78 open-ended questions, three research driving questions, background questionnaire, and personal artifacts from faculty members. Five major themes with subthemes, 15 code categories, and code co-occurrences emerged from the data collection, field notes, memos, and data analysis. However, not all of the code categories were replicated by all of the …
Introducing Students To Computer Science: Using Python To Build A Basic Quiz Game, Alex Diosdado
Introducing Students To Computer Science: Using Python To Build A Basic Quiz Game, Alex Diosdado
Computer Science and Software Engineering
This outreach program activity was designed to increase interest in the field of Computer Science within students in middle and high school. It focuses on some of the basic concepts of programming, like Strings, Integers and printing to the screen as it was designed to be an introduction for those students who had little to no previous programming history. This activity was tested with a smaller group of high school Algebra 1 students, most of whom did not have any prior programming knowledge. It ultimately fulfilled its goal as a survey that was conducted at the end of the activity …
Teachers' Experiences In Implementing Technology-Rich Curriculum For Student Achievement: A Phenomenological Study, Dorrothe Jean
Teachers' Experiences In Implementing Technology-Rich Curriculum For Student Achievement: A Phenomenological Study, Dorrothe Jean
Doctoral Dissertations and Projects
The purpose of this phenomenological study is to describe how premillennial teachers at East Orange Public School (EOPS, a pseudonym) respond to technology-rich curriculum. Twelve elementary school premillennial teachers will participate in the study focused on one central research question and three sub-questions: (a) What is the lived experience of elementary teachers implementing technology-rich mathematics curriculum? (b)How do elementary school teachers perceive their preparedness for teaching in a classroom where technology-rich math curriculum has been implemented? (c)How do elementary school teachers describe their transitions from a premillennial curriculum to a millennial curriculum where it has been implemented? (d) How do …
Understanding Environmental Justice Instruction In Higher Education: Activist Epistemic Orientations And A Continuum Of Community Engaged Curricular And Pedagogical Practice, Christopher James Rabe
Understanding Environmental Justice Instruction In Higher Education: Activist Epistemic Orientations And A Continuum Of Community Engaged Curricular And Pedagogical Practice, Christopher James Rabe
Graduate Doctoral Dissertations
Starting in the early 1980’s, the environmental justice (EJ) movement was critical in drawing much needed attention to how communities of color, low-income groups, Indigenous peoples, and other marginalized groups have experienced a disproportionate burden of environmental and ecological harms. The EJ movement sparked the birth of the EJ field of study. While originally focused on quantitative and distributional understandings of toxic waste in communities of color, the EJ field of study has since expanded to comprise community-based methodologies and new ways to understand justice, including participatory, recognition, and transformational approaches. The EJ field now represents multiple areas such as …
Supporting English Learners In Elementary Classrooms: How Teacher Preparation Affects El Achievement, Jordan Whitman
Supporting English Learners In Elementary Classrooms: How Teacher Preparation Affects El Achievement, Jordan Whitman
Education | Master's Theses
Due to an increasing number of English learning children entering the U.S. public school system (Tinkler., Tinkler, Reyes, & Elkin, 2019), there is a need for teachers to be prepared and feel confident in providing adequate English language instruction and academic content to support these young learners. There is also limited research on the effectiveness of instructional strategies that elementary teachers use to engage and instruct English learning students, including technology as a strategy (Chang & Hung, 2019). This study uses qualitative data analysis to examine instructional strategies and practices, as well as teacher’]s’ own perceptions and experiences that support …
Self-Determination Skills: Building A Foundation For Student Success, Mariya T. Davis, Ingrid K. Cumming, Julie D. Southward
Self-Determination Skills: Building A Foundation For Student Success, Mariya T. Davis, Ingrid K. Cumming, Julie D. Southward
Special Education Faculty Publications
Among different transitions that happen in a young person’s life, transition to adulthood can be one of the most challenging. The new post-school environment requires increased self-determination, including self-awareness, self-advocacy, self-management, and other important skills that help one function as an independent adult. Because it takes time to develop and nurture self-determination skills, it is important to begin early and continue infusing self-determination into various aspects of instruction. Discussed in this article are SCORE strategies for embedding self-determination skills into classroom settings. Multiple tools and resources are provided to aid with the selection and application processes. A vignette is offered …
Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps Instructor Perceptions Of Instructional Delivery In A Virtual Environment, John Derek Faulconer
Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps Instructor Perceptions Of Instructional Delivery In A Virtual Environment, John Derek Faulconer
Electronic Theses and Dissertations
The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (JROTC) instructors at the secondary level as they adapted to teaching in a virtual environment during the COVID-19 global pandemic. Although the literature indicated that the delivery method for the content and curriculum aligned to Junior Reserve Officer Training Corps was best suited for face-to-face instruction, no evidence existed to indicate cadet overall success based on the implementation by virtual delivery, using one or multiple online platforms. The objective of each JROTC Program is to ensure that cadets successfully complete the program with advanced …
Achieving Learning Outcomes In The World Of Covid, Jeffrey Ward, Frederick Burrack
Achieving Learning Outcomes In The World Of Covid, Jeffrey Ward, Frederick Burrack
Academic Chairpersons Conference Proceedings
Presenters assessment will explore how focusing on the learning outcomes guides faculty into determining best instructional practices in a remote/hybrid delivery method, illustrating examples of faculty shifting from traditional face-to-face teaching strategies to remote or hybrid teaching strategies, while achieving the same learning outcomes.
An Investigation Into The Experiences Of Secondary Social Studies Teachers Regarding A Change In State-Level Social Studies Standards In A Colorado School District, Lindsay Mcmichael Sitterley
An Investigation Into The Experiences Of Secondary Social Studies Teachers Regarding A Change In State-Level Social Studies Standards In A Colorado School District, Lindsay Mcmichael Sitterley
Theses and Dissertations
The researcher investigated the perceptions of secondary social studies teachers regarding the change in state - level social studies standards, especially in terms of their response in instructional practice. Furthermore, the study included a discussion of the factors that influence the actions of teachers related to the change in the social studies curriculum. This allowed for an analysis of potential changes in instructional decision making, such as including cooperative learning strategies, that were the result of the change in curriculum. The study is significant as changes in recommended instructional strategies have occurred in recent years. Additionally, research in the field …
Effects Of Interdisciplinary Instruction On Students' Connection Of Knowledge Across Learning Domains, Karley Becker
Effects Of Interdisciplinary Instruction On Students' Connection Of Knowledge Across Learning Domains, Karley Becker
Honors Projects
This research examines the use of interdisciplinary instruction in the early education classroom and how it impacts students' connection of knowledge across learning domains. This study looks specifically at a second-grade classroom in a midwestern state. The primary learning domains of social studies, science, mathematics, and language arts were focused on. The study is broken up into two phases: observation and implementation. Prior to the observation phase, a four-part interdisciplinary lesson plan on dinosaurs was created, including transition activities, vocabulary, state standards, and activities. After the creation of the lesson plans, the observation phase took place in which a typical …
Bricks For Building Empathy: An Action Research Study Assessing The Impact Of Robotics On Elementary Students’ Empathy Towards Individuals With Disabilities, Emily A. Yow
Theses and Dissertations
Empathy helps us understand and respond appropriately to how others feel. It allows us to establish meaningful connections to those around us at home, school, work, and in society. The education system has realized the importance of social-emotional skills and have started implementing programs to help students develop these skills. Businesses have also started developing principles and practices that center around empathy and perspective-taking. The purpose of this action research was to assess the impact of robotics on fifth grade students’ empathy towards people with disabilities. This study aimed to answer the following research questions: (1) How does using robotics …
Strengthening Information Literacy Through (Online) Conversation, Kelly Weigand, Antonia Jameson Jordan
Strengthening Information Literacy Through (Online) Conversation, Kelly Weigand, Antonia Jameson Jordan
Georgia International Conference on Information Literacy
There are many controversies surrounding the use of animals for food, and we have observed that veterinary students are interested in deeper consideration of the ethical, moral, and practical implications associated with animal agriculture. Guided by the ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education, we developed a discussion-based course focused on the complex issue of consuming animal products to provide practice in seeking and critically evaluating sources.
The course met weekly for eight weeks. Prior to each session, students submitted a brief reflection on the assigned readings and videos, and provided citations for additional relevant materials. Class sessions were …
Reimagine The Possibilities: Shifting A Peer-Reference Program From In-Person To Online To Hybrid, Lydia C. Gwyn
Reimagine The Possibilities: Shifting A Peer-Reference Program From In-Person To Online To Hybrid, Lydia C. Gwyn
Georgia International Conference on Information Literacy
In 2017, the Sherrod Library at East Tennessee State University (ETSU) launched the Library Ambassador Program (LAP), a peer-reference program through which trained undergraduate students employed by the library are stationed in buildings across campus to help students with their research. Just as the LAP was gaining traction as an effective avenue of research help, our college made the quick transition to online mode due to the spread of COVID-19 in our region. This presentation will discuss the hidden value we found in shifting our program online and how the LAP functions now in a hybrid space, supporting information literacy …
Embedding Udl Into Multi-Tiered Systems Of Supports, Hank Bohanon
Embedding Udl Into Multi-Tiered Systems Of Supports, Hank Bohanon
Education: School of Education Faculty Publications and Other Works
Secondary school staff may be implementing effective universal, tier one strategies in their schools. By universal strategies, we mean academic, behavioral, and social and emotional supports that all teachers can embed into the curriculum. One example of universal support is Universal design for learning (UDL). This approach includes embedding instructional supports when you teach a skill, asking students to engage with course content, and/or expressing what they have learned, and can help strengthen your schoolwide approach to instruction.
The Experiences Of Educators In Low-Income New York City Middle Schools Navigating Classroom Instruction And Decisions For Homeless Students: A Phenomenological Study, Peta G. Henry
Doctoral Dissertations and Projects
The purpose of this transcendental phenomenological study was to develop a composite description of the experiences and instructional decisions of classroom teachers across two low-income public middle schools in New York City, specifically toward homeless students. Using purposeful and criterion sampling to select participants, the study examined the experiences of 12 certified classroom teachers who were aware of students experiencing homelessness. The theories guiding this study were Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs theory and Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory. Research questions focused on how classroom teachers described their experiences with homeless students and examined their instructional decisions and perceptions of …
Teachers’ Perceptions Of Teaching Literacy To English Language Learners (Ells) Who Struggle With Reading And Who Are In A Suburban District In New York State, Kara A. Walker
Theses and Dissertations
Results of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP; National Center for Education Statistics, 2020) have shown that despite efforts to raise the literacy skill levels of students in elementary school, the average reading scores for fourth-grade students in 2019 were still cause for concern. The NAEP data showed the reading scores in four percentiles (i.e., 10th, 25th, 50th, and 75th) from 2019 dropped in comparison with the corresponding data garnered in 2017 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020). In addition, the number of students whose first language is not English has soared by 105% in the last decade (i.e., …
Exploring The Relationship Between Instruction And Student Perceptions Of Self-Efficacy And Student Science Identity In Black And Latino Science Students, Yolette Wright
Theses and Dissertations
The purpose of this quantitative study was to determine the relationship between Black and Latino high school science students’ perceptions of instruction and science identity and to determine if this relationship is mediated by student perceptions of self-efficacy. A second goal of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between the science teacher’s years of experience and the students’ perceptions of instruction, perceptions of self-efficacy, and science identity. Study participants included 204 Black and Latino high school science students from a suburban high school and their science teachers. The Student Perception of Classroom Quality Scale was used …
Course Outline And Weekly Plans For Eds 705 Eds 705 Practicum In Curriculum And Instruction For Culturally And Linguistically Diverse Young Children, Lisa Cavallero
Open Educational Resources
Topics covered in this course include: interest inventories, assessing students, online tools for assessment, lesson planning, standards, IEPs, diverse classroom, growth mindset.
This course outline includes:
- all assignments for the course (link to assignments packet).
- links to lecture slides
- instructor notes
- additional resources
Note: users will be prompted to make their own copy of documents when clicking on links to Google Docs and Google Slides.
An Exploration Of The Use Of Science Specialists And Elementary Students’ Science Achievement, Wesley Roach, Jillian L. Wendt
An Exploration Of The Use Of Science Specialists And Elementary Students’ Science Achievement, Wesley Roach, Jillian L. Wendt
Journal of Mathematics and Science: Collaborative Explorations
The purpose of this causal-comparative study was to examine the effect of using science specialists in elementary schools on science achievement scores. The sample population consisted of 282 fifth grade students enrolled in Georgia public schools. The data for this study was collected from four public elementary schools’ end-of-year state assessments and analyzed as archival data. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine if there was a difference between science achievement scores in elementary schools that use science specialists compared to those that do not. Results indicate that no statistically significant difference exists between the science achievement scores …