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Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons™
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Articles 1 - 30 of 750
Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences
Characteristics Of Effective Postsecondary Advising: How Often To Meet And What To Focus On, Grace Pai, Melissa De Feo
Characteristics Of Effective Postsecondary Advising: How Often To Meet And What To Focus On, Grace Pai, Melissa De Feo
Journal of College Access
Using data from a large-scale senior exit survey administered at public high schools in New York City, this study aims to parse out what quantitative and qualitative characteristics of postsecondary advising are most influential in predicting students’ likelihood to attend college. We apply a broader conceptual framework for postsecondary advisement that includes school-based college advising as well as parental advisement on college and career planning. Results from logistic regression analyses show receiving help in completing college applications, along with talking to a counselor and parents/guardians at least 3 times in their senior year, to be salient predictors of college-going.
Supporting Grandfamilies During The Covid-19 Pandemic: Federal Flexibility And New Funding, Ana Beltran
Supporting Grandfamilies During The Covid-19 Pandemic: Federal Flexibility And New Funding, Ana Beltran
GrandFamilies: The Contemporary Journal of Research, Practice and Policy
The Covid-19 pandemic has elevated and heightened the challenges and inequities that grandfamilies face. Unlike parents, with automatic legal rights and responsibilities to the children, grandfamily caregivers are often left to navigate systems that impact them but do not understand them. Federal response to the pandemic began by perpetuating these existing challenges. The CARES Act failed to explicitly name grandfamilies for system support, and they and those who work with them had to individually advocate in local communities. Later in the response efforts, federal legislation specifically called out supports for grandfamilies by providing unique federal funding flexibilities for kinship navigator …
Exploring Household Food Insecurity And Inter-Generational Self-Help Club Involvement Among Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Due To Hiv/Aids In Vietnam, Lesley M. Harris, Hannah Nguyen, Andrew M. Winters, Gina Rosen, Nguyen D. Thang
Exploring Household Food Insecurity And Inter-Generational Self-Help Club Involvement Among Grandparents Raising Grandchildren Due To Hiv/Aids In Vietnam, Lesley M. Harris, Hannah Nguyen, Andrew M. Winters, Gina Rosen, Nguyen D. Thang
GrandFamilies: The Contemporary Journal of Research, Practice and Policy
Intergenerational Self-help Clubs (ISHCs), also known as “Empathy Clubs” in Vietnam may aid in improving quality of life and well-being for grandparent-headed households impacted by HIV/AIDS. However, less is known about how club membership impacts household food security. This cross-sectional, mixed methods study examines the differences in household food security and coping responses to food insecurity among 30 grandparents who are raising grandchildren due to HIV/AIDS, 15 who were involved in ISHC groups and 15 who were not involved in ISHC groups, in Hai Phong, Vietnam. In addition to qualitative interviews, all grandparents completed the Household Food Security Insecurity …
The Relationship Between Eviction, Rent Burden, And Poor Births In Kalamazoo County, Michigan, Joseph Agati
The Relationship Between Eviction, Rent Burden, And Poor Births In Kalamazoo County, Michigan, Joseph Agati
Masters Theses
Millions of Americans get evicted every year, with thousands coming from Kalamazoo County, Michigan alone. Additionally, many more live with rent burden, paying over 30% of their monthly income on rent. Both eviction and rent burden have been linked to adverse health effects, such as depression and anxiety, and negative coping mechanisms, such as alcoholism and smoking. This study asks if eviction and rent burden are correlated with poor births in Kalamazoo County as there are hundreds of poor births in the county every year, as well as which social vulnerability themes are most predictive of eviction and poor births. …
On The Discourses Of Social Protection Distribution: Insights From Indonesia, Sutiyo Sutiyo
On The Discourses Of Social Protection Distribution: Insights From Indonesia, Sutiyo Sutiyo
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
This study aimed to discuss the distribution accuracy of Social Protection Programs in Indonesia. Specifically, the main focus was on its connection with deservingness criteria and the selection method. A case study in the Purbalingga district showed the unsuitability of nationally imposed criteria and weaknesses of the centralised selection of beneficiaries. A community-based targeting approach was simulated and could overcome most of the problems. Furthermore, it can be adapted in other localities and developing countries due to its acceptability and accuracy.
Promote Smart Decarceration And Eliminate Racism Grand Challenges For Social Work: Reimagining Marijuana Policy, Charles H. Lea Iii, Gaby Mohr, Susan A. Mccarter, Sarah B. Coughlin, Aaron Gottlieb, Briana S. Partlow, Keshawn S. Matthews, Branden A. Mcleod
Promote Smart Decarceration And Eliminate Racism Grand Challenges For Social Work: Reimagining Marijuana Policy, Charles H. Lea Iii, Gaby Mohr, Susan A. Mccarter, Sarah B. Coughlin, Aaron Gottlieb, Briana S. Partlow, Keshawn S. Matthews, Branden A. Mcleod
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
Marijuana decriminalization and legalization policies are being passed in many state and local jurisdictions throughout the United States (U.S.). In this process, many lawmakers have used the argument that these policies and associated practices will redress racial disparities in the criminal punishment system. Yet, the evidence suggests this is not the case. We, therefore, use Critical Race Theory (CRT) to interrogate how marijuana-related policies and practices perpetuate collateral consequences and racial disparities in mass incarceration and recidivism to uncover the ways in which they challenge efforts to promote smart decarceration and eliminate racism. We argue that in order to effectively …
Factors Associated With Receiving Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (Snap) Among Newly Resettled Refugees In The United States, Edson Chipalo, Zainab Suntai, Simon Mwima
Factors Associated With Receiving Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (Snap) Among Newly Resettled Refugees In The United States, Edson Chipalo, Zainab Suntai, Simon Mwima
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
In the United States, SNAP was made available to refugees in 1977, and most refugees rely heavily on SNAP to sustain themselves before becoming self-reliant. Knowledge of sociodemographic factors and chronic debilitating conditions related to receiving SNAP benefits among refugees is limited. This study aimed to examine sociodemographic factors and chronic debilitating conditions associated with receiving SNAP benefits among refugees resettled in the United States. This study used a cross-sectional, nationally representative sample (n=6,100) of the refugees who entered the U.S. between 2013 and 2017. The data were obtained from the 2018 Annual Survey of Refugees (ASR) from participants aged …
Healthcare Access Barriers And Proposed Solutions For Limited English-Proficient (Lep) Latinx Patients In Southwest Michigan, Carmen Vinkemulder
Healthcare Access Barriers And Proposed Solutions For Limited English-Proficient (Lep) Latinx Patients In Southwest Michigan, Carmen Vinkemulder
Honors Theses
This research study explores the circumstances and experiences of LatinX patients with limited English proficiency (LEP) when seeking treatment in the healthcare system of Southwest Michigan, in addition to proposing solutions to better facilitate this population’s access. The terminology used in this research, LatinX, is an American English neologism used as a genderinclusive term used interchangeably with Latino/a and/or Hispanic. This research provides an overview of the current socio-political legislature and climate of the American healthcare system as it pertains to the LatinX population to spread awareness and identify the barriers existing in our current healthcare model. This study will …
Cities Leading The Way: Municipal Climate Policy In The Us, Naomi Bick
Cities Leading The Way: Municipal Climate Policy In The Us, Naomi Bick
Dissertations
Understanding cities is a key feature for understanding responses (or lack thereof) to a collective action problem like climate change. In the absence of federal climate change policies in the United States, many city and state governments have adopted and implemented policies to mitigate and adapt to climate change. As mayors, city managers, and city councils increasingly become central actors, scholars have shifted their studies to focus on city climate change policy (Yi et al. 2017a, Hughes 2017). Descriptive case studies have identified a broad range of factors; however, the causal mechanisms of whether cities adopt and implement climate change …
Michigan Municipal Manager Perceptions On Lgbtq+ Inclusion: A Narrative Policy Framework Case Study, Christopher R. Surfus
Michigan Municipal Manager Perceptions On Lgbtq+ Inclusion: A Narrative Policy Framework Case Study, Christopher R. Surfus
Dissertations
This study explores the knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions (KAP) of municipal managers regarding the LGBTQ+ community in three Michigan cities—Grand Rapids, Holland, and Kalamazoo. The purpose is to understand managers’ beliefs and attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community and how policies are implemented and enforced to reduce discrimination. The specific research questions deal with how the beliefs and attitudes of public managers reflect an understanding of and competency on LGBTQ+ issues, how they are affected by the presence of LGBTQ+ staff members, and how they differ from the actual policy provisions affecting the LGBTQ+ community. These questions are examined in the …
The Political Economy Of American Militarism: The Military- Industrial Complex, Power Elite, And The 2003 Invasion Of Iraq, Randy S. La Prairie
The Political Economy Of American Militarism: The Military- Industrial Complex, Power Elite, And The 2003 Invasion Of Iraq, Randy S. La Prairie
Dissertations
Sociologists have paid little attention to the structural causes of American participation in wars. Consequently, the discipline offers few theoretical perspectives on American war making. Sociological theories that do exist fall under two headings: state-centric and Marxist theories. Both lack prima facie plausibility. In this dissertation, I advance a unique, alternative theoretical framework that I argue offers a more tenable theory of American militarism in the post-World War II period. The elite model of war mobilization, as I refer to it, consists of five interrelated structural causes of American participation in wars: (1) state-capitalist imperialism; (2) elite control of public …
Considerations For Acquiring Excess Military Equipment By Police Leaders, Michael P. Mendenhall
Considerations For Acquiring Excess Military Equipment By Police Leaders, Michael P. Mendenhall
Dissertations
Police departments across the United States have been able to acquire excess military equipment from the 1033 program since 1997. Although several studies have examined police militarization, including the 1033 program, this is the first study that has surveyed police leaders at the local level to understand the determinants of 1033 acquisitions in Michigan. Using an open systems framework, this dissertation will examine both the internal and external factors that contribute to police leaders’ decisions to acquire or not acquire equipment for their departments. These determinants include internal factors such as budgetary considerations, perceptions of the profession, and knowledge of …
Narratives In Sex Offender Management Laws: How Stories About A Label Shape Policymaking, Mauricio P. Yabar
Narratives In Sex Offender Management Laws: How Stories About A Label Shape Policymaking, Mauricio P. Yabar
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
Serious scholarly inquiry regarding the role of social constructions and narratives in sex offender management laws is relatively a new undertaking. In the last two decades, a myriad of studies exploring the negative effects of Sex Offender Registration and Notification (SORN) policies were added to the literature, a trend that appears to be slowing down today. The purpose of this paper is to recommend the integration of the narrative policy framework (NPF) with Schneider and Ingram’s (1993) theory of social construction of target populations in the analysis of SORN policies. The author provides a critical review of SORN policies while …
The Social Construction Of Happiness: A Mixed-Methods Research Study In Mexico, Oscar A. Martínez-Martínez, Margaret Lombe, Ana María Vázquez-Rodríguez, Javier Reyes-Martínez, Araceli Ramírez-López
The Social Construction Of Happiness: A Mixed-Methods Research Study In Mexico, Oscar A. Martínez-Martínez, Margaret Lombe, Ana María Vázquez-Rodríguez, Javier Reyes-Martínez, Araceli Ramírez-López
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
This study analyzes how happiness is built in Mexico in a context of concentrated poverty. The study uses a mixed-methods approach and incorporates two techniques of data analysis. The first analysis employs an ordinal logistic model with data from the Self-Report Well-being Survey (N=44,518), while the second draws upon semi-structured interviews in four Mexican states (N=247). The results show that six important categories influence the level of happiness in Mexico: (1) emotional life; (2) self-perception of health (the health status of family members and close friends); (3) religiosity and religious affiliation, or both; (4) having the freedom to decide and …
Preparation And Response To Covid-19: An Exploratory Analysis Of Policy Response Spending And Health Expenditures In 20 Oecd Countries, Anis Ben Brik, Neil Gilbert
Preparation And Response To Covid-19: An Exploratory Analysis Of Policy Response Spending And Health Expenditures In 20 Oecd Countries, Anis Ben Brik, Neil Gilbert
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
This article examines the comparative impact of COVID-19 in terms of the number of cases per capita and the per capita mortality rate and analyzes the relationships between these impact estimates and three policy measures in 20 OECD countries, controlling for the population over age 65. The policy measures involve public and private health expenditures prior to the pandemic onset and per capita fiscal expenditures devoted to policies designed to address the pandemic, which are identified in the International Monetary Fund’s policy tracker. The findings show no relationship between the policy measures and COVID-19 when controlling for the population over …
Impact Of 9/11-Induced Adverse Experiences On The Mental Health Of Latino Americans And The Role Of Religious Service Attendance, Soyoung Kwon, Yongsok Kim, Jiyoung Moon Dr.
Impact Of 9/11-Induced Adverse Experiences On The Mental Health Of Latino Americans And The Role Of Religious Service Attendance, Soyoung Kwon, Yongsok Kim, Jiyoung Moon Dr.
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
Much research has documented the mental health consequences of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001; however, little is known about how the 9/11 attacks affect the mental health of Latino Americans. This study uses a nationally representative sample of Latino Americans (N = 2,346) from the National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS) to examine the relationships between 9/11-induced negative life experiences and mental disorders. The former includes losing a job, reducing family income, feeling less safe and secure, discrimination, loss of optimism, and inability to cope with things. For the latter, mental disorders may exhibit as psychological distress, …
Understanding The Influence Of Interdisciplinary Research: An Examination Of Carol Hirschon Weiss’S Scholarship, Gregory Dee Greenman Ii
Understanding The Influence Of Interdisciplinary Research: An Examination Of Carol Hirschon Weiss’S Scholarship, Gregory Dee Greenman Ii
Dissertations
Research evaluation is the subfield of evaluation that examines the processes and products of scientific and technological research. This dissertation explores the case of interdisciplinary research evaluation by reviewing the publications of one of the most influential and highly cited scholars in evaluation, public administration, and knowledge utilization: Carol Hirschon Weiss. As one of the foundational theorists of evaluation, the evaluation perspective of Weiss's work typically pervades discussions. That approach ignores her influence in other fields, particularly her centrality to the knowledge utilization field. Prior research indicates that the influence of interdisciplinary research is challenging to ascertain because research evaluation …
Albion Through Malleable Eyes: The Great Migration, Urban Renewal And Missed Opportunities, Demetrius R. Goodale
Albion Through Malleable Eyes: The Great Migration, Urban Renewal And Missed Opportunities, Demetrius R. Goodale
Masters Theses
Albion, Michigan’s African American community built a robust, diverse, and thriving city in the early 20th century. Jobs were plentiful and wages allowed for healthy communities to sprout up across the city’s landscape. During this period Albion’s overall population more than doubled, and its African American community grew exponentially over the course of six decades. However, for many in the African American community, societal and economic gains were overshadowed by a crippling shortage in viable housing options. Albion’s African American community experienced limited options to help remedy the community’s housing challenges. These limitations were due to discriminatory housing norms and …
Ally Or Enemy: The Impact Of Leadership On United States Army Combat Veterans’ Deployment Experiences Who Have Served In Iraq And Afghanistan, Derik Van Baale
Ally Or Enemy: The Impact Of Leadership On United States Army Combat Veterans’ Deployment Experiences Who Have Served In Iraq And Afghanistan, Derik Van Baale
Dissertations
Soldiers’ deployment experiences have been well-researched and studied, but the primary focus has been on enemy-induced trauma. Being a combat veteran who served in Iraq myself, and as someone who has counseled a plethora of combat veterans, I am keenly aware that there is more than exposure to enemy fire and the loss of comrades that can leave a lasting impression. Often, the actions by and interactions with leaders during deployments can also prove to be quite impactful to soldiers. However, very little research exists on the impact of leadership behavior as a factor during a soldier’s deployment experience and …
Food Insecurity: A Closer Look At How Households Cope With Food Insecurity And How This Phenomenon Affects Their Overall Health, Burak O. Tan
Dissertations
This study focused on the lived experiences of low-income households who coped with food insecurity and explored their worldview on the health impacts of battling with this phenomenon in the Grand Rapids Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). While the main research question focused on how low-income households coped with food insecurity, the following were the focus of the research analysis and served as the empirically testable framework: a) addressing the impact of poverty on affordability of nutritious food, b) addressing the impact of food deserts on accessibility and availability of nutritious food, c) addressing the coping strategies used to battle food …
Increasing Odds: The Impact Of Casino Gaming Size, Location, And Economic Stream Style Differences On County Revenue In Pennsylvania, Brandon W. Koch
Increasing Odds: The Impact Of Casino Gaming Size, Location, And Economic Stream Style Differences On County Revenue In Pennsylvania, Brandon W. Koch
Dissertations
As county administrators seek new revenue streams, casino gaming becomes a valuable local revenue production mechanism. Recently, Pennsylvania has been vastly successful with developing a conunercial casino market. The American Gaming Association in 2017 found that Pennsylvania has the largest sole commercial casino industry and highest effective tax rate in the United States. The case study of the Pennsylvania gaming industry is utilized to investigate plannable casino born factor impacts on county revenue. State and local regulations dictate the method and location (plannable factors) of permitted casino gaming via quotas and licensure. Casino born factors created as a result of …
Competencies Of Certified Nonprofit Professionals, Daniela C. Schroeter, Vickie Edwards
Competencies Of Certified Nonprofit Professionals, Daniela C. Schroeter, Vickie Edwards
Faculty Research and Creative Activities Award (FRACAA)
Funding was requested to identify research and evaluation competencies and related training needs among professionals in the nonprofit sector. The rationale for this study was to establish a research agenda in Nonprofit Management that draws on prior work in the area of evaluation competencies. To that end, the following research activities were implemented: (1) identify a database of Certified Nonprofit Professionals through coordination with the Nonprofit Leadership Alliance and the Association of Certified Nonprofit Professionals; (2) implement a web-based questionnaire; (3) analyze questionnaire data; (4) present findings at pertinent conferences; and (5) use findings to shape future curricula.
Structured Savings And Asset Ownership: The Role Of Rotating Savings And Credit Associations Among African Immigrants In The United States., Habiba Ibrahim
Structured Savings And Asset Ownership: The Role Of Rotating Savings And Credit Associations Among African Immigrants In The United States., Habiba Ibrahim
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs) are commonly practiced in developing countries across the globe. The practice is also common among immigrants in developed economies. This study uses survey data collected from African immigrants in the United States to examine whether saving in ROSCAs is associated with asset ownership among the participants. The results found that after receiving the ROSCAs savings, asset ownership among participants increased. Home ownership increased by 13.6%, small businesses increased by 27.2% (including taxi and commercial trucks) and car ownership increased by almost 20%. In conclusion, ROSCA participation increased asset ownership.
Leadership, Satisfaction, Commitment, And Turnover Intention In The United Arab Emirates Public Sector, Mohammed Humaid Aljanahi
Leadership, Satisfaction, Commitment, And Turnover Intention In The United Arab Emirates Public Sector, Mohammed Humaid Aljanahi
Dissertations
This study sheds light on the Abu Dhabi Public School employee’s perception, transformational, and transactional leadership style and their nuanced effects on satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intention. The study found that transformational leadership increased satisfaction and commitment, and decreased turnover intention. Also, diverging from theoretical expectation, only some aspects of transactional leadership such as passive management by expectation had a decreased satisfaction, and increased turnover intention. Moreover, the study proved that to an extent western instruments, such as the MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 2004), TCM (Allen & Meyer, 2004), and MSQ (Weiss, Dawis, England, & Lofquist, 1967), do work in …
A Pilot Study: Baseline Educational Achievements Of Children Raised By Grandparents In A Kinship Care Program, Mary Lou Lacomb-Davis, Phd, Aprn, Cpnp-Pc, Michael Patton, Msw, Jean Pawl, Phd, Rn, Ocn, Cne
A Pilot Study: Baseline Educational Achievements Of Children Raised By Grandparents In A Kinship Care Program, Mary Lou Lacomb-Davis, Phd, Aprn, Cpnp-Pc, Michael Patton, Msw, Jean Pawl, Phd, Rn, Ocn, Cne
GrandFamilies: The Contemporary Journal of Research, Practice and Policy
This pilot study reports the baseline data of a prospective longitudinal study examining the educational achievements of grandchildren being raised by grandparents in parent absent homes. The baseline data includes 117 grandchildren in grades K-12 in two school districts in a southeastern state. School records reporting 2,230 grades were examined for grade point average (GPA) and attendance for K-12 and conduct in grades K-5. The majority of the grandchildren achieved A/B averages. There were no significant differences between gender, pre-care experiences, placement by welfare agencies or paternal involvement across years of schooling. GPAs were lower in the grandchildren who had …
From The Boots On The Ground: A Comparison Of The Attitudes And Beliefs Of Military Members And Mental Health Professionals Regarding The Moral Injury Construct, Karis L. Callaway
From The Boots On The Ground: A Comparison Of The Attitudes And Beliefs Of Military Members And Mental Health Professionals Regarding The Moral Injury Construct, Karis L. Callaway
Dissertations
An increasing amount of research conducted in recent years indicates that, in addition to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, moral injury is a key concept to recognize when considering the deployment experiences of service members. Although related to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, which is a fear-based mental health diagnosis, moral injury is a distinct concept. It acknowledges the possible prolonged negative psychological, social, and spiritual consequences that may occur after experiences that challenge and transgress one’s deeply held moral beliefs. Events such as perpetration of harm, failing to protect or prevent harm, and witnessing or learning about distressing acts committed by influential others …
Banking Supervisory And Regulatory Policy In Developing Countries: An Analysis Of Determinants And Impacts, Nanda Ayu Wijayanti
Banking Supervisory And Regulatory Policy In Developing Countries: An Analysis Of Determinants And Impacts, Nanda Ayu Wijayanti
Dissertations
A decade after the Great Recession in 2007/2008, many developing countries are still struggling to devise appropriate policy actions that enhance banking supervision and regulation and help mitigate large-scale crises in the future. This uncertainty has also left lingering impacts on economic growth, especially in developing countries that have weak institutional mechanisms. This study examines how banking supervision and regulatory reforms are determined in the cross-national context of advanced and developing countries. Using time series, cross-sectional data on 180 countries over a period of 12 years (1999-2011), the purpose is to explore the roles of exposure of financial crisis, trade …
Governance And Economic Growth In The Arab World: Evidence From Panel Data Analysis, Adel H. Aladlani
Governance And Economic Growth In The Arab World: Evidence From Panel Data Analysis, Adel H. Aladlani
Dissertations
Economic growth has been volatile and slow in the Arab World during the last two decades. Arguing that good governance is a precondition to vibrant economic systems and growth, comparative researchers and development policy practitioners view such a slowdown in growth in the Arab World to be triggered by weak governance performance. This cross-national study examines the relationship between governance and economic growth in the Arab World, which includes 22 member-states of the League of Arab States, over the period 1996-2017. By using World Bank data, governance is operationalized through voice and accountability (VA), political stability and absence of violence …
Communication In Stormwater Utility Fees Across Michigan, Hailey Olson
Communication In Stormwater Utility Fees Across Michigan, Hailey Olson
Honors Theses
Stormwater Utilities (SWU) ordinances are gaining wide popularity in municipalities throughout the Great Lakes region of the United States. A SWU creates a fund to maintain and update stormwater infrastructure, which in turn helps to reduce destructive flooding, and also results in higher quality waterways. This study examines two SWUFs in the State of Michigan: one in the City of Jackson (COJ), which implemented a SWUF in 2011; and the second in the City of Ann Arbor (COAA), which implemented its SWUF in 1984. These two case studies offer important contrasts and lessons. For instance, as a result of resident …
Are We Globalized? Transformative Education And Internationalization Within Naspaa Programs, Li Cheng
Are We Globalized? Transformative Education And Internationalization Within Naspaa Programs, Li Cheng
Dissertations
In a globalized world, curriculum internationalization is gradually becoming important to higher education institutions. The importance of teaching and learning with a global perspective has been addressed in public service education. In particular, the purpose of having a global perspective in public service education is to broaden the knowledge, open the mind, and guide the future actions of public service students. Transformative learning theory has been developed over the past three decades to study the transformation of people’s perspectives and actions through learning experiences. The primary goal of this study is to understand the efforts that American public service programs …