Physics Commons^™

Disaggregating Longer-Term Trends From Seasonal Variations In Measured Pv System Performance, Chibuisi Chinasaokwu Okorieimoh, Brian Norton, Michael Conlon

Articles

Photovoltaic (PV) systems are widely adopted for renewable energy generation, but their performance is influenced by complex interactions between longer-term trends and seasonal variations. This study aims to remove these factors and provide valuable insights for optimising PV system operation. We employ comprehensive datasets of measured PV system performance over five years, focusing on identifying the distinct contributions of longer-term trends and seasonal effects. To achieve this, we develop a novel analytical framework that combines time series and statistical analytical techniques. By applying this framework to the extensive performance data, we successfully break down the overall PV system output into …

Contributions Of Vibrational Spectroscopy To Virology: A Review, Iqra Chaudhary, Naomi Jackson, Denise Denning, Luke O'Neill, Hugh Byrne

Articles

Vibrational spectroscopic techniques, both infrared absorption and Raman scattering, are high precision, label free analytical techniques which have found applications in fields as diverse as analytical chemistry, pharmacology, forensics and archeometrics and, in recent times, have attracted increasing attention for biomedical applications. As analytical techniques, they have been applied to the characterisation of viruses as early as the 1970s, and, in the context of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, have been explored in response to the World Health Organisation as novel methodologies to aid in the global efforts to implement and improve rapid screening of viral infection. This review …

Controlling Unequal Surface Energy Results Caused By Test Liquids: The Case Of Uv/O3 Treated Pet, Bilge N. Altay, Paul D. Fleming, Md Arifur Rahman, Alexandra Pekarovicova, Bruce Myers, Cem Aydemir, Arif Karademir

Articles

Ultraviolet/ozone (UV/O3) treatment has been reported to be an effective method to modify properties such as wettability, adhesion or adsorption of plastic surfaces. The change in the surface is measured by contact angle analysis, which employs liquids and their surface tensions (ST) to estimate the surface energy (SE). We found two different practices in the scientific community: (1) the majority of researchers adopted the ST value of liquids from the literature, while (2) other researchers conducted real-time measurements in the lab under ambient conditions prior to SE estimation. To the best of our knowledge, there is no study that compares …

Limits Of Detection Of Mycotoxins By Laminar Flow Strips: A Review, Xinyi Zhao, Hugh Byrne, Christine M. O’Connor, James Curtin, Furong Tian

Articles

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolic products of fungi. They are poisonous, carcinogenic, and mutagenic in nature and pose a serious health threat to both humans and animals, causing severe illnesses and even death. Rapid, simple and low-cost methods of detection of mycotoxins are of immense importance and in great demand in the food and beverage industry, as well as in agriculture and environmental monitoring, and, for this purpose, lateral flow immunochromatographic strips (ICSTs) have been widely used in food safety and environmental monitoring. The literature to date describing the development of ICSTs for the detection of different types of mycotoxins using …

The Prospect Of Microwave Heating: Towards A Faster And Deeper Crack Healing In Asphalt Pavement, Shi Xu, Xueyan Liu, Amir Tabakovic, Erik Schlangen

Articles

Microwave heating has been shown to be an effective method of heating asphalt concrete and in turn healing the damage. As such, microwave heating holds great potential in rapid (1–3 min) and effective damage healing, resulting in improvement in the service life, safety, and sustainability of asphalt pavement. This study focused on the microwave healing effect on porous asphalt concrete. Steel wool fibres were incorporated into porous asphalt to improve the microwave heating efficiency, and the optimum microwave heating time was determined. Afterwards, the microwave healing efficiency was evaluated using a semi–circular bending and healing programme. The results show that …

Optimisation Of Retrofit Wall Insulation: An Irish Case Study, Rakshit D. Muddu, D M. Gowda, Anthony James Robinson, Aimee Byrne

Articles

Ireland has one of the highest rates of emissions per capita in the world and its residential sector is responsible for approximately 10% of total national CO2 emissions. Therefore, reducing the CO2 emissions in this sector will play a decisive role in achieving EU targets of reducing emissions by 40% by 2030. To better inform decisions regarding retrofit of the existing building stock, this study proposes Optimum Insulation Thicknesses (OIT) for typical walls in 25 regions in Ireland. The calculation of OIT includes annual heat energy expenditure, CO2 emissions, and material payback period. The approach taken is based on Heating …

Enhancing The Visibility Of Vernier Effect In A Tri-Microfiber Coupler Fiber Loop Interferometer For Ultrasensitive Refractive Index And Temperature Sensing, Fangfang Wei, Dejun Liu, Zhe Wang, Zhuochen Wang, Gerald Farrell, Qiang Wu, Gang-Ding Peng, Yuliya Semenova

Articles

In this paper a Vernier effect based sensor is analyzed and demonstrated experimentally in a tri-microfiber coupler (Tri-MFC) and polarization-maintaining fiber (PMF) loop interferometer (Tri-MFC-PMF) to provide ultrasensitive refractive index and temperature sensing. The main novelty of this work is an analysis of parameters of the proposed Tri-MFC-PMF with the objective of determining the conditions leading to a strong Vernier effect. It has been identified by simulation that the Vernier effect is a primary factor in the design of Tri-MFC-PMF loop sensing structure for sensitivity enhancement. It is furthermore demonstrated experimentally that enhancing the visibility of the Vernier spectrum in …

Simultaneous Measurement Of Displacement And Temperature Based On Two Cascaded Balloon-Like Bent Fibre Structures, Ke Tian, Ruoning Wang, Meng Zhang, Xiafan Wang, Xin Wang, Guoyong Jin, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Pengfei Wang

Articles

A low-cost optical fibre sensor based on two cascaded balloon-like bent fibre (BBF) structures for simultaneous displacement and temperature measurement is reported. The sensor is fabricated by cascading two balloon-like bent single-mode fibres (SMFs) which with different bending radii, generating two separate interference dips within a limited wavelength range. The wavelength of the two interference dips exhibits different responses to external displacement and temperature variations, hence simultaneous measurement of displacement and temperature is realized. Experimental results show that the proposed optical fibre sensor achieves a displacement sensitivity of −318.8 pm/μm and a temperature sensitivity of 47.4 pm/°C. Taking advantage of …

Microfluidic Flow Direction And Rate Vector Sensor Based On A Partially Gold-Coated Tfbg, Changyu Shen, Dejun Liu, Xiaokang Lian, Tingting Lang, Chunliu Zhao, Yuliya Semenova, Jacques Albert

Articles

In microfluidic chips applications, the monitoring of the rate and the direction of a microfluidic flow is very important. Here, we demonstrate a liquid flow rate and a direction sensor using a partially gold-coated tilted fiber Bragg grating (TFBG) as the sensing element. Wavelength shifts and amplitude changes of the TFBG transmission resonances in the near infrared reveal the direction of the liquid flowing along the fiber axis in the vicinity of the TFBG due to a nanoscale gold layer over part of the TFBG. For a device length of 10 mm (and a diameter of 125 µm for easy …

Nis2 As A Broadband Saturable Absorber For Ultrafast Pulse Lasers, Pengfei Wang, Han Zhang, Yu Yin, Qiuyun Ouyang, Yujin Chen, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Masaki Tokurakawa, Sulaiman Wadi Harun, Cong Wang, Shi Li

Articles

Nickel disulfide (NiS2) has recently been found to possess strong nonlinear saturable absorption properties. This feature is highly attractive for nonlinear photonics applications. Ultrafast pulse generation is successfully demonstrated in this article for both Ytterbium- and Erbium-doped fibre lasers using micro-fibre deposited nickel disulfide (NiS2) as a saturable absorber (SA). The fabricated SA device has a modulation depth of 23% at 1.06 μm and 30.8% at 1.55 μm. Stable dissipative soliton operation was achieved at 1064.5 nm with a pulse duration of 11.7 ps and another stable conventional soliton pulse train was also obtained at 1560.2 nm with a pulse …

Intense Mid-Infrared Emission At 3.9 Μm In Ho3+-Doped Zbya Glasses For Potential Use As A Fiber Laser, Haiyan Zhao, Ruicong Wang, Xin Wang, Shijie Jia, Yaxian Fan, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Shunbin Wang, Pengfei Wang

Articles

Intense mid-infrared emission at 3.9 µm in Ho3+-doped ZBYA glasses with direct upper laser level (Ho3+ : 5 I5) pumping at a wavelength of 888 nm is reported for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. Spectroscopic parameters were determined using the Judd–Ofelt theory and the measured absorption spectrum. The maximum emission cross section of the Ho3+-doped ZBYA glass is estimated to be 2.7 × 10−21 cm2 at 3906 nm. Additionally, fluorescence spectra and lifetimes of ZBYA glasses with different Ho3+ ion doping concentrations were measured. The results provide theoretical and experimental basis for better selection of rare-earth-doped …

Third-Order Optical Nonlinearity Properties Of Cdcl2-Modifed Ge–Sb–S Chalcogenide Glasses, Xiaosong Lu, Jianhui Li, Lu Yang, Runan Zhang, Yindong Zhang, Jing Ren, Aurelian Catalin Galca, Mihail Secu, Gerald Farrell, Pengfei Wang

Articles

We developed a new type of chalcohalide glasses with physicochemical and nonlinear optical properties that are tunable by composition. It is found that more than 60 mol.% CdCl2 heavy metal halide can be dissolved into the ternary Ge–Sb–S system and forming stable glasses. The visible-light transparency range is extended to shorter wavelengths with the addition of CdCl2, which is beneficial for the optical quality control and infra-red (IR) system alignment. The third-order optical nonlinearity (TONL) is studied using the femtosecond Z-scan method. The results show that both the nonlinear refractive index and two photon absorption co-efficient decrease with CdCl2. Benefiting …

A Twelve-Wavelength Thulium-Doped Fibre Laser Based On A Microfibre Coil Resonator Incorporating Black Phosphorus, Shi Li, Yu Yin, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Pengfei Wang

Articles

A novel multi-wavelength continuous Thulium-doped fibre laser incorporating a microfibre coil resonator based on black phosphorus (MCR-BP) material has been successfully fabricated and demonstrated. A twelve-wavelength spectrum with 0.54 nm channel spacing has been achieved by simply adjusting the pump source power. A single peak extinction ratio of more than 40 dB was observed. The superior performance of the MCR-BP described in this article compared to conventional MCR based fibre lasers can be attributed the inclusion of the Black Phosphorous Material. The enhanced lasing is primarily due to the twin properties of the MCR-BP device combining a comb-like filter effect …

All Fibre Q-Switched Thulium-Doped Fibre Laser Incorporating Thulium–Holmium Co-Doped Fibre As A Saturable Absorber, Shi Li, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Ahmad Haziq Aiman Rosol, A.A. Latiff, Sulaiman Wadi Harun, Bingang Guo, Pengfei Wang

Articles

A novel all fibre Q-switched Thulium-doped fibre laser (TDFL) is reported which includes a short length of a Thulium–Holmiumco-doped fibre (THDF) as a saturable absorber. A high repetition rate (27.26 kHz) coupled with a low pulse width (19.06μs) is obtained for single wavelength Q-switched pulse operation at an output wavelength of 1911.5 nm using a pump power of 200 mW. Increasing the pump power from 200 mW to 700 mW results in the repetition rate increasing from 27.26 kHz to 99.67 kHz and the pulse width decreasing from 19.06μs to 920 ns. The centre wavelength of the single Q-switched pulse …

Distribution Of Tm 3+ And Ni 2+ In Chalcogenide Glass Ceramics Containing Ga2s3 Nanocrystals: Influence On Photoluminescence Properties, Xiaosong Lu, Zhiqiang Lai, Jing Ren, Lukas Strizik, Tomas Wagner, Yanqiu Du, Gerald Farrell, Pengfei Wang

Articles

The distribution of Tm3+ and Ni2+ ions is unambiguously exhibited in 80GeS2-20Ga2S3 chalcogenide glass ceramics (GCs) containing Ga2S3 nanocrystals (NCs) by using advanced analytical transmission electron microscopy. Distinctively different distribution patterns of Tm3+ and Ni2+ ions are observed in the GCs obtained by controlled crystallization. The distribution of the dopants imposes strong influence on their optical properties which are revealed by absorption and photoluminescence (PL) spectra. Detailed discussions are given of the mechanisms of the crystallization-induced PL enhancement and quenching of the Tm3+ mid-infrared and Ni2+ near-infrared emissions, respectively.

In-Fiber Temperature Sensor Based On Green Up-Conversion Luminescence In An Er3+-Yb3+ Co-Doped Tellurite Glass Microsphere, Meng Zhang, Angzhen Li, Jibo Yu, Xiaosong Lu, Shunbin Wang, Elfed Lewis, Gerald Farrell, Libo Yuan, Pengfei Wang

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A novel, to the best of our knowledge, in-fiber temperature sensor based on green up-conversion (UC) luminescence in an Er3+-Yb3+" role="presentation" style="box-sizing: border-box; display: inline; font-size: 12.88px; line-height: normal; word-spacing: normal; overflow-wrap: normal; white-space: nowrap; float: none; direction: ltr; max-width: none; max-height: none; min-width: 0px; min-height: 0px; border: 0px; padding: 0px; margin: 0px; position: relative;">Er3+-Yb3+Er3+-Yb3+ co-doped tellurite glass microsphere is described. The tellurite glass microsphere is located firmly inside a suspended tri-core hollow-fiber (STCHF) structure. The pump light launched via a single-mode fiber (SMF) is passed through a section of multimode fiber, which is fusion spliced between the SMF …

Ultrabroadband Mid-Infrared Emission From Cr 2+ -Doped Infrared Transparent Chalcogenide Glass Ceramics Embedded With Thermally Grown Zns Nanorods, Xiaosong Lu, Zhiqiang Lai, Runan Zhang, Haitao Guo, Jing Ren, Lukas Strizik, Tomas Wagner, Gerald Farrell, Pengfei Wang

Articles

We report, for the first time to our knowledge, an ultrabroadband mid-infrared (MIR) emission in the range of 1800–2800 nm at room temperature from a Cr2+-doped chalcogenide glass ceramic embedded with pure hexagonal (wurtzite) β-ZnS nanorods and study the emission-dependent properties on the doping concentration of Cr2+. A new family of chalcogenide glasses based on (100 − x) Ge1.5As2S6.5 – x ZnSe (in mol.%) was prepared by melt-quenching method. The Cr2+: β-ZnS nanorods of ˜150 nm in diameter and ˜1 μm in length were grown in the Cr2+-doped glass after thermal annealing. The compositional variations of glass structures and optical …

Sns Optical Fiber Structure Sensor For Direct Detection Of The Phase Transition In C18h38 N-Alkane Material, Wei Han, Marek Rebow, Xiaokang Lian, Dejun Liu, Gerald Farrell, Qiang Wu, Yuliya Semenova

Articles

A singlemode-no-core-singlemode (SNS) fiber structure optical sensor for detecting the solid-liquid phase change in a phase change material: C18H38 n-alkane material (n-octadecane) is proposed and demonstrated. The transmission-type sensor probe consists of a short section of no-core fiber sandwiched between two sections of a singlemode fiber. Phase changes in n-octadecane are accompanied by large step-like variations of its refractive index (RI). Such a large discontinuous change of the n-octadecane’s RI during its phase transition, leads to the corresponding step-like change in the transmitted optical power that can reliably indicate the phase change of the sample in the vicinity of the …

Magnetic Field Sensor Based On A Tri-Microfiber Coupler Ring In Magnetic Fluid And A Fiber Bragg Grating, Fangfang Wei, Dejun Liu, Arun Kumar Mallik, Gerald Farrell, Qiang Wu, Gang-Ding Peng, Yuliya Semenova

Articles

In this paper we propose and investigate a novel magnetic field sensor based on a Tri-microfiber coupler combined with magnetic fluid and a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) in a ring. A sensitivity of 1306 pm/mT was experimentally demonstrated in the range of magnetic fields from 0 to 15 mT. The reflection peak in the output spectrum associated with the FBG serves as a reference point allowing to avoid ambiguity in determining the spectral shift induced by the magnetic field. Due to its high sensitivity at low magnetic fields, the proposed structure could be of high interest in low field biosensing …

Serialised Holography For Brand Protection And Authentication, Dinesh Vather, Izabela Naydenova, Dervil Cody, Monika Zawadzka, Suzanne Martin, Emilia Mihaylova, Stephen Curran, Paul Duffy, Josune Portillo, Daniel Connell, Stephen Mcdonnell, Vincent Toal

Articles

The problems presented by counterfeit products and documentation are discussed. Limitations of existing holograms for anti-counterfeit applications are described. We describe the advantages of full holographic serialisation and the requirements in terms of materials and techniques for mass production of true serialised holograms. These requirements having been met, we report for the first time the mass production of fully serialised holograms. The novelty of approach consists of the direct use of product manufacturer’s information as the object in a holographic recording system along with a self-processing photopolymer and modular optical system to facilitate mass production of truly serialised volume holograms. …

Broadband Acoustic Measurement Of The Agar-Based Tissue Mimicking Material – A Longitudinal Study, Adela Rabell-Montiel, Jacinta Browne, Stephen Pye, Tom Anderson, Carmel Moran

Articles

Commercially available ultrasound quality assurance test phantoms rely upon the long-term acoustic stability of tissue-mimicking-materials (TMMs). The measurement of the acoustic properties can be technically challenging and it is important to ensure its stability. The standard technique is to film-wrap samples of TMM and to measure the acoustic properties in a water bath. In this study, a modified technique is proposed whereby the samples of TMM are measured in a preserving fluid that is intended to maintain their characteristics. The acoustic properties were evaluated using a broadband pulse-echo substitution technique over the frequency range of 4.5 – 50 MHz at …

Application Of Phase Shifting Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry In Studies Of Photoinduced Shrinkage Of Photopolymer Layers, Mohesh Moothanchery, Viswanath Bavigadda, Manojit Pramanik, Vincent Toal, Izabela Naydenova

Articles

Photoinduced shrinkage occurring in photopolymer layers during holographic recording was determined by Phase Shifting Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry. Phase maps were calculated from the changes in intensity at each pixel due to the phase differences introduced between object and reference beams. Shrinkage was then obtained from the changes in phase as recording proceeded. The technique allows for whole field measurement of the dimensional changes in photopolymers during holographic recording.

Strengthening The Development Of The Short-Rotation Plantations Bioenergy Sector: Policy Insights From Six European Countries, Carlos Parra-Lopez, Martin Holley, Kevin Lindegaard, Samir Sayadi, Gonzalo Esteban-Lopez, Victor Duran-Zuazo, Christoph Knauer, Hans-Georg Von Engelbrechten, Ralf Winterber, Annika Henriksson, Annette Lamley, Anders Nylander, Susanne Paulrud, Pauline Leonard, Patrick Daly, Lukasz Drzewaszewski, Wojciech Rzewuski

Articles

This paper, based on a participatory methodological framework involving expert stakeholders and researchers from six European countries (Germany, Ireland, Poland, Spain, Sweden and UK), analyses the priority issues for the development of short-rotation plantations (SRP), and proposes a series of policy strategies to strengthen this development. The results indicate that there is a lack of awareness of the multifaceted benefits of SRP at the level of farmers, policy makers and public authorities. More research is required to put a value on the multifunctionality of SRP and justify its public support. Small-scale projects using established technologies are also required with energy …

Development And Characterisation Of A Bath-Based Vertical Blackbody Cavity Calibration Source For The Range −30 °C To 150 °C, Sam Boles, Igor Pušnik, Dubhaltach Mac Lochlainn, David Fleming, Izabela Naydenova, Suzanne Martin

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Industrial use of Radiation Thermometers (RTs) is becoming increasingly common due to the perceived advantages and wide market availability. Blackbody Cavity Radiation Sources (BCRSs) are typically used for calibration of these instruments, and these cavities are oriented horizontally in most cases. For BCRSs based in thermal baths, this necessitates the use of custom-built baths with side openings. This paper presents a unique design of vertical bath-based BCRS that may be immersed in conventional calibration baths without modifications to the baths. The method, results, and analysis of an international comparison comparing this vertical BCRS, standard horizontal BCRSs, and a previous iteration …

Determination Of The Polymerisation Rate Of A Low-Toxicity Diacetone Acrylamide-Based Holographic Photopolymer Using Raman Spectroscopy, Dervil Cody, Emilia Mihaylova, Luke O'Neill, Izabela Naydenova

Articles

The polymerisation rate of a low-toxicity Diacetone Acrylamide (DA)-based photopolymer has been measured for the first time using Raman spectroscopy. A value for the polymerisation rate of 0.020 s⁻¹ has been obtained for the DA photopolymer by modelling the polymerisation reaction dynamics as a stretched exponential or Kohlrausch decay function. This is significantly lower than the polymerisation rate of 0.100 s⁻¹ measured for the well known Acrylamide (AA)-based photopolymer composition. The effect of the additive glycerol on the polymerisation rate of the DA-based photopolymer has also been investigated. The inclusion of glycerol is observed to increase the rate …

The Contribution Of Non-Thermal And Advanced Oxidation Technologies Towards Dissipation Of Pesticide Residues, N. Misra

Articles

Background

The use of pesticides has stabilised the food production to a great extent and their usage cannot be avoided anymore. Nevertheless, common food processing operations always allowed dissipating pesticide residues in foods to some extent. Within the food science community and the food processing sector, non-thermal food technologies are being researched and commercialised at a great pace over the past three decades.

Scope and Approach

In this review we provide a critical analysis of the literature pertinent to the fate of pesticide residues during non-thermal processing of solid and liquid foods. We also identify the opportunities for further development …

A Soft Condensed Matter Approach Towards Mathematical Modelling Of Mass Transport And Swelling In Food Grains, Michael Chapwanya, N. Misra

Articles

Soft condensed matter (SCM) physics has recently gained importance for a large class of engineering materials. The treatment of food materials from a soft matter perspective, however, is only at the surface and is gaining importance for understanding the complex phenomena and structure of foods. In this work, we present a theoretical treatment of navy beans from a SCM perspective to describe the hydration kinetics. We solve the transport equations within a porous matrix and employ the Flory–Huggin’s equation for polymer–solvent mixture to balance the osmotic pressure. The swelling of the legume seed is modelled as a moving boundary with …

Microfiber Coupler Based Label-Free Immunosensor, Lin Bo, Christy Charlton O'Mahony, Yuliya Semenova, Niamh Gilmartin, Pengfei Wang, Gerald Farrell

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Optical microfibers and related structures which incorporate large evanescent field and minimal size offer new opportunities for biosensing applications. In this paper we report the development of an immunosensor based on a tapered microfiber coupler embedded in a low refractive index polymer. Biomolecules adsorbed on the microfiber coupler surface modify the surrounding refractive index. By immobilizing antigens on the surface of the sensing area, the microfiber coupler was able to operate as a label-free immunosensor to detect specific antibodies. We experimentally demonstrated for the first time the sensing ability of this sensor using a fibrinogen antigen-antibody pair. By monitoring the …

In-Package Nonthermal Plasma Degradation Of Pesticides On Fresh Produce, N. Misra, Shashi Pankaj, Tony Walsh, Finbarr O'Regan, Paula Bourke, Patrick Cullen

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In-package nonthermal plasma (NTP) technology is a novel technology for the decontamination of foods and biological materials. This study presents the first report on the potential of the technology for the degradation of pesticide residues. A cocktail of pesticides, namely Azoxystrobin, Cyprodinil, Fludioxonil and Pyriproxyfen was tested on strawberries. The concentrations of these pesticides were monitored in priori and post- plasma treatment using GC-MS/MS. An applied voltage and time dependent degradation of the pesticides was observed for treatment voltages of 60, 70 and 80 kV and treatment durations ranging from 1 to 5 min, followed by 24 h in-pack storage. …

A Photonic Crystal Fiber Based Polarimetric Sensor For Cure Monitoring Of Magneto-Rheological Smart Composite Material, Manjusha Ramakrishnan, Ginu Rajan, Yuliya Semenova, Y. Zhou, Stephen Jerrams, Gerald Farrell

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A buffer stripped high birefringent photonic crystal fibre based polarimetric sensor is developed for monitoring the curing process of magnetorheological elastomer (MRE) smart composite material. Using the developed sensor, different phases of the MRE curing process are clearly visible from the phase shift variation of the embedded polarisation maintaining photonic crystal fibre (PM-PCF) sensor. During the curing process, the buffer stripped PM-PCF exhibits a stress/strain induced phase shift variation from 0 to 1.98 rad. This is a significantly large phase change, which can be used to very clearly identify the different stages in the curing process. For comparison, a fibre …