Medicine and Health Sciences Commons^™

Strategies And Challenges Associated With Recruiting Retirement Village Communities And Residents Into A Group Exercise Intervention, Rachel L. Duckham, Jamie L. Tait, Caryl A. Nowson, Kerrie M. Sanders, Dennis R. Taaffe, Keith D. Hill, Robin M. Daly

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

BACKGROUND: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) provide the highest level of scientific evidence, but successful participant recruitment is critical to ensure the external and internal validity of results. This study describes the strategies associated with recruiting older adults at increased falls risk residing in retirement villages into an 18-month cluster RCT designed to evaluate the effects of a dual-task exercise program on falls and physical and cognitive function.

METHODS: Recruitment of adults aged ≥65 at increased falls risk residing within retirement villages (size 60-350 residents) was initially designed to occur over 12 months using two distinct cohorts (C). Recruitment occurred via …

Mechanical Suppression Of Osteolytic Bone Metastases In Advanced Breast Cancer Patients: A Randomised Controlled Study Protocol Evaluating Safety, Feasibility And Preliminary Efficacy Of Exercise As A Targeted Medicine, Nicolas H. Hart, Daniel A. Galvão, Christobel Saunders, Dennis R. Taaffe, Kynan T. Feeney, Nigel A. Spry, Daphne Tsoi, Hilary Martin, Raphael Chee, Tim Clay, Andrew D. Redfern, Robert U. Newton

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

BACKGROUND: Skeletal metastases present a major challenge for clinicians, representing an advanced and typically incurable stage of cancer. Bone is also the most common location for metastatic breast carcinoma, with skeletal lesions identified in over 80% of patients with advanced breast cancer. Preclinical models have demonstrated the ability of mechanical stimulation to suppress tumour formation and promote skeletal preservation at bone sites with osteolytic lesions, generating modulatory interference of tumour-driven bone remodelling. Preclinical studies have also demonstrated anti-cancer effects through exercise by minimising tumour hypoxia, normalising tumour vasculature and increasing tumoural blood perfusion. This study proposes to explore the promising …

The Current State Of Subjective Training Load Monitoring—A Practical Perspective And Call To Action, Joseph O. C. Coyne, G. Gregory Haff, Aaron J Coutts, Robert U. Newton, Sophia Nimphius

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

This commentary delivers a practical perspective on the current state of subjective training load (TL) monitoring, and in particular sessional ratings of perceived exertion, for performance enhancement and injury prevention. Subjective measures may be able to reflect mental fatigue, effort, stress, and motivation. These factors appear to be important moderators of the relationship TL has with performance and injury, and they also seem to differ between open and closed skill sports. As such, mental factors may affect the interaction between TL, performance, and injury in different sports. Further, modeling these interactions may be limited due to the assumption that an …

Correction To: Hif Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibition Protects Skeletal Muscle From Eccentric Contraction Induced Injury, Andrew N. Billin, Samuel E. Honeycutt, Alan V. Mcdougal, Jaclyn P. Kerr, Zhe Chen, Johannes M. Freudenberg, Deepak K. Rajpal, Guizhen Luo, Henning Fritz Kramer, Robert S. Geske, Frank Fang, Bert Yao, Richard V. Clark, John Lepore, Alex Cobitz, Ram Miller, Kazunori Nosaka, Aaron C. Hinken, Alan J. Russell

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Following publication of the original article [1], the authors flagged that there is a discrepancy with the Availability of data and materials statement on page 12 of the article.

The Effect Of Altering Body Posture And Barbell Position On The Between-Session Reliability Of Force-Time Curve Characteristics In The Isometric Mid-Thigh Pull, Stuart N. Guppy, Claire J. Brady, Yosuke Kotani, Michael H. Stone, Nikola Medic, Guy Gregory Haff

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Seventeen strength and power athletes (n = 11 males, 6 females; height: 177.5 ± 7.0 cm, 165.8 ± 11.4 cm; body mass: 90.0 ± 14.1 kg, 66.4 ± 13.9 kg; age: 30.6 ± 10.4 years, 30.8 ± 8.7 years), who regularly performed weightlifting movements during their resistance training programs, were recruited to examine the effect of altering body posture and barbell position on the between-session reliability of force-time characteristics generated in the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP). After participants were familiarised with the testing protocol, they undertook two testing sessions which were separated by seven days. In each session, the participants …

Effect Of A Repeated Sprint Ability Test On The Muscle Contractile Properties In Elite Futsal Players, Javier Sánchez-Sánchez, David Bishop, Jorge García-Unanue, Esther Ubago-Guisado, Enrique Hernando, Jorge López-Fernández, Enrique Colino, Leonor Gallardo

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a repeated sprint ability (RSA) test on the contractile properties of the muscles in elite futsal players. A total of 20 elite players completed the RSA test (7 × 30 m), and the contractile response from the rectus femoris (RF) and biceps femoris (BF) of both legs were analysed pre and post through tensiomyography. There was a significant increment in 30-m times from the third sprint onwards (p < 0.05). The percent decrement in sprint ability (RSA) with respect to the first sprint was significantly higher in the last sprint. The players did not show evidence of lateral asymmetry in any of the muscle groups analysed after the RSA test (p > 0.05). Following the RSA test there was a significant reduction in the delay time (Td) in RF, a significant decrement …

Hif Prolyl Hydroxylase Inhibition Protects Skeletal Muscle From Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury, Andrew N Billin, Samuel E Honeycutt, Alan V Mcdougal, Jaclyn P Kerr, Zhe Chen, Johannes M Freudenberg, Deepak K Rajpal, Guizhen Luo, Henning Fritz Kramer, Robert S Geske, Frank Fang, Bert Yao, Richard V Clark, John Lepore, Alex Cobitz, Ram Miller, Kazunori Nosaka, Aaron C Hinken, Alan J Russell

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

BACKGROUND: In muscular dystrophy and old age, skeletal muscle repair is compromised leading to fibrosis and fatty tissue accumulation. Therefore, therapies that protect skeletal muscle or enhance repair would be valuable medical treatments. Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) regulate gene transcription under conditions of low oxygen, and HIF target genes EPO and VEGF have been associated with muscle protection and repair. We tested the importance of HIF activation following skeletal muscle injury, in both a murine model and human volunteers, using prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors that stabilize and activate HIF.

METHODS: Using a mouse eccentric limb injury model, we characterized the protective effects …

The Validity Of The Push Band 2.0 During Vertical Jump Performance, Jason P. Lake, Simon Augustus, Kieran Austin, Peter Mundy, John J. Mcmahon, Paul Comfort, Guy G. Haff

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The Push Band has the potential to provide a cheap and practical method of measuring velocity and power during countermovement vertical jumping (CMJ). However, very little is known about whether it conforms to laboratory-based gold standards. The aim of this study was to assess the agreement between peak and mean velocity and power obtained from the belt-worn Push Band, and derived from three-dimensional motion capture, and vertical force from an in-ground force platform. Twenty-two volunteers performed 3 CMJ on a force platform, while a belt-worn Push Band and a motion capture system (a marker affixed to the Push Band) simultaneously …

The Assessment Of Isometric, Dynamic, And Sports-Specific Upper-Body Strength In Male And Female Competitive Surfers, Joanna Parsonage, Josh Secomb, Rebecca Dowse, Brendon Ferrier, Jeremy Sheppard, Sophia Nimphius

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in the dynamic strength index (DSI): an assessment of upper-body dynamic strength relative to maximal isometric strength. The secondary purpose was to investigate gender differences in the dynamic skill deficit (DSD): an assessment of sports-specific dynamic strength relative to maximal isometric strength, and its association with a sports-specific performance measure in surfers. Nine male (age = 30.3 ± 7.3 yrs) and eight female (age = 25.5 ± 5.2 yrs) surfers undertook three upper-body assessments: isometric push-up, dynamic push-up, and a force plate pop-up to determine the DSI and DSD. …

Intense Exercise For Survival Among Men With Metastatic Castrate-Resistant Prostate Cancer (Interval-Gap4): A Multicentre, Randomised, Controlled Phase Iii Study Protocol, Robert Newton, Stacey A Kenfield, Nicolas H. Hart, June M Chan, Kerry S. Courneya, James Catto, Stephen P Finn, Rosemary Greenwood, Daniel C Hughes, Lorelei Mucci, Stephen R Plymate, Stephan F E Praet, Emer M Guinan, Erin L Van Blarigan, Orla Casey, Mark Buzza, Sam Gledhill, Li Zhang, Daniel A. Galvao, Charles J Ryan, Fred Saad

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

INTRODUCTION: Preliminary evidence supports the beneficial role of physical activity on prostate cancer outcomes. This phase III randomised controlled trial (RCT) is designed to determine if supervised high-intensity aerobic and resistance exercise increases overall survival (OS) in patients with metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC).

METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Participants (n=866) must have histologically documented metastatic prostate cancer with evidence of progressive disease on androgen deprivation therapy (defined as mCRPC). Patients can be treatment-naïve for mCRPC or on first-line androgen receptor-targeted therapy for mCRPC (ie, abiraterone or enzalutamide) without evidence of progression at enrolment, and with no prior chemotherapy for mCRPC. Patients …

Factors Affecting Powerlifting Performance: An Analysis Of Age- And Weight-Based Determinants Of Relative Strength, Christopher Latella, Daniel Van Den Hoek, Wei-Peng Teo

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Powerlifting (PL) is characterised by the ability to generate maximal force. However, an understanding of the factors affecting strength in PL athletes is poorly understood. Therefore, competition data were analysed from 1368 individuals during 2017. Relative strength was compared for the squat (SQ), bench press (BP) and deadlift (DL) between age groups (Sub-junior [SJ], Junior [JU], Open [OP], and Masters’ I-IV [M1-M4]), weight classes (females; 47 kg, 52 kg, 57 kg, 63 kg, 72 kg, 84 kg and + 84 kg and males; 59 kg, 66 kg, 74 kg, 83 kg, 93 kg, 105 kg, 120 kg, + 120 kg) …

Acute Effects Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation On Peak Torque And Muscle Imbalance, Cassio V. Ruas, Ryan T. Mcmanus, Claudio M. Bentes, Pablo B. Costa

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Background: The effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching on muscle imbalance are not fully understood. The aim of this study was to examine the acute effects of PNF stretching on knee extension and flexion peak torque (PT), as well as the conventional and functional hamstrings to quadriceps (H:Q) ratios. Methods: Fifteen men (age = 22 ± 1 years; body mass = 76 ± 12 kg; height = 176 ± 7 cm) and fifteen women (age = 22 ± 2 years; body mass = 63 ± 8 kg; height = 161 ± 5 cm) performed concentric quadriceps and hamstrings, and …

Prescribing Target Running Intensities For High-School Athletes: Can Forward And Backward Running Performance Be Autoregulated?, Aaron Uthoff, Jon Oliver, John Cronin, Paul Winwood, Craig Harrison

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Target running intensities are prescribed to enhance sprint-running performance and progress injured athletes back into competition, yet is unknown whether running speed can be achieved using autoregulation. This study investigated the consistency of running intensities in adolescent athletes using autoregulation to self-select velocity. Thirty-four boys performed 20 m forward running (FR) and backward running (BR) trials at slow, moderate and fast intensities (40–55%, 60–75% and +90% maximum effort, respectively) on three occasions. Absolute and relative consistency was assessed using the coefficient of variation (CV) and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). Systematic changes in 10 and 20 m performance were identified between …

Effect Of Plyometric Training On Speed And Change Of Direction Ability In Elite Field Hockey Players, Jasdev Singh, Brendyn B. Appleby, Andrew P. Lavender

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

This study investigated the effects of two plyometric training protocols on sprint and change of direction (COD) performance in elite hockey players. A parallel-group randomized controlled trial design was used and seventeen elite male and female field hockey players were randomly allocated into either low-to-high (L-H, n = 8) or high-to-low (H-L, n = 9) training groups. Each group performed separate variations of the drop jump exercise twice weekly for six weeks, with an emphasis on either jump height (L-H) or drop height (H-L). Performance variables assessed included sprint times over 10 m and 20 m, as well as 505 …

A Comparison Of Displacement And Energetic Variables Between Three Team Sport Gps Devices, Paolo Terziotti, Marc Sim, Ted Polglaze

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

This study compared the outputs of three different commercially-available GPS player-tracking devices for a range of commonly used displacement and energetic variables in activities replicating team sport movements. Professional male soccer players (n = 7), simultaneously wore three GPS devices (Catapult OptimEye S5, GPExe Pro 1, StatSport ViperPod) whilst completing four separate drills, comprising progressively more complex changes in speed and direction. Displacement (distance, speed) and energetic (energy cost, metabolic power, energy expenditure) variables were compared for each device. All three devices tended to under-estimate distance compared to the known value for each drill, with only minor and inconsistent …

Bridging The Gap Between Clinicians And Fitness Professionals, Rachele Pojednic, Amy Bantham, Fred Arnstein, Mary A. Kennedy, Edward Phillips

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Objective Health clubs (HC) and personal trainers (PT) are traditional outlets for the promotion of physical activity (PA) and exercise programming. As physicians are increasingly being called on to write exercise prescriptions for their patients, this study sought to investigate the level of integration between the healthcare and fitness systems.

Design An internet study was designed with five domains to understand physicians’: (1) overall perception of HC, (2) appropriateness and recommendation of HC and PT to their patients, (3) attitude regarding specific aspects of HC, (4) support of patient participation in HC sponsored exercise and (5) elements of HC that …

Relationship Between Strength And Power Production Capacities In Trained Sprint Track Cyclists, James Vercoe, Mike R. Mcguigan

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between strength and power capabilities in trained sprint track cyclists. Ten participants including six women and four men (age: 22.1±6.8 years, body height: 176.1±6.7 cm, body weight: 72.1±7.9 kg) performed isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) and isokinetic sprint tests. Variables measured included peak force (PF), peak rate of force development (PRFD) for the IMTP and maximal torque and maximal power (Pmax) for the isokinetic sprint test. There was a strong relationship between PF on the IMTP and maximal peak torque values across five isokinetic sprints (r=.890-.925). Strong relationships were also shown …

Scoring Analysis Of The Men’S 2014, 2015 And 2016 World Championship Tour Of Surfing: The Importance Of Aerial Manoeuvres In Competitive Surfing, Brendon Ferrier, Jeremy Sheppard, Oliver R.L. Farley, Josh L. Secomb, Joanna Parsonage, Robert Newton, Sophia Nimphius

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of aerial manoeuvres on scoring in professional surfing. 23,631 waves were analysed for the number and types of aerial manoeuvres performed from the 2014, 2015 and 2016 Men’s World Championship Tour. Additionally, the awarded score, timing and order of the aerial was also analysed. Descriptive statistics and Two Way ANOVA’s were performed with Sidak Multiple Comparisons Post Hoc analysis. Results were a significantly higher score being awarded (P ≤ 0.0001) when including an aerial in competition across all three seasons. In 2015 surfers were awarded a significantly larger score …

The Constituent Year Effect: Relative Age Disparities In Australian Masters Track And Field Athletic Participation, Nikola Medic, Jasmine Lares, Bradley W. Young

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The constituent year effect, a source of relative age disparities, in masters sport has been demonstrated mainly amongst North American samples. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a participation-related constituent year effect exists among athletes (n = 6492) competing in Australian Masters Athletics competitions between 2000 and 2014. The results indicated that a participation-related constituent year effect was observed as the likelihood of participating was significantly higher for masters athletes in their first and second constituent year of any five-year age category (p < 0.0001) and was lower when they were in the fourth or fifth constituent year. The results also indicated this effect is influenced by gender and age. Specifically, the effect was significant for both male (p < 0.0001) and female (p < 0.001) masters athletes; as well during the third, sixth, seventh, and eighth + decades of life (all ps < 0.001). These data demonstrate that despite masters sport being an avenue for promotion of participation and overall health, there is potential for improving how competitive organizational strategies are implemented given the recurring intermittent patterns of participation associated with five-year age brackets which are likely to compromise benefits.

Metabolic And Fatigue Profiles Are Comparable Between Prepubertal Children And Well-Trained Adult Endurance Athletes, Anthony Birat, Pierre Bourdier, Enzo Piponnier, Anthony J. Blazevich, Hugo Maciejewski, Pascale Duche, Sebastien Ratel

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The aim of this study was to determine whether prepubertal children are metabolically comparable to well-trained adult endurance athletes and if this translates into similar fatigue rates during high-intensity exercise in both populations. On two different occasions, 12 prepubertal boys (10.5 ± 1.1 y), 12 untrained men (21.2 ± 1.5 y), and 13 endurance male athletes (21.5 ± 2.7 y) completed an incremental test to determine the power output at VO_2max (PVO_2max) and a Wingate test to evaluate the maximal anaerobic power (P_max) and relative decrement in power output (i.e., the fatigue index, FI). Furthermore, …

Change In Knee Flexor Torque After Fatiguing Exercise Identifies Previous Hamstring Injury In Football Players, Cameron Lord, Fadi Ma'ayah, Anthony J. Blazevich

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Muscular fatigue and interlimb strength asymmetry are factors known to influence hamstring injury risk; however, limb‐specific exacerbation of knee flexor (hamstrings) torque production after fatiguing exercise has previously been ignored. To investigate changes in muscular force production before and after sport‐specific (repeated‐sprint) and non‐specific (knee extension‐flexion) fatiguing exercise, and explore the sensitivity and specificity of isokinetic endurance (ie, muscle‐specific) and single‐leg vertical jump (ie, whole limb) tests to identify previous hamstring injury. Twenty Western Australia State League footballers with previous unilateral hamstring injury and 20 players without participated. Peak concentric knee extensor and flexor (180°∙s⁻¹) torques were …

Minimally Actuated Walking: Identifying Core Challenges To Economical Legged Locomotion Reveals Novel Solutions, Ryan T. Schroeder, John Ea Bertram

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Terrestrial organisms adept at locomotion employ strut-like legs for economical and robust movement across the substrate. Although it is relatively easy to observe and analyze details of the solutions these organic systems have arrived at, it is not as easy to identify the problems these movement strategies have solved. As such, it is useful to investigate fundamental challenges that effective legged locomotion overcomes in order to understand why the mechanisms employed by biological systems provide viable solutions to these challenges. Such insight can inform the design and development of legged robots that may eventually match or exceed animal performance. In …

The Effect Of Maximal Isometric Training On Doublet-Induced Force Enhancement And Its Relationship With Changes In Voluntary Rate Of Force Development, David Vernon Murray

Theses: Doctorates and Masters

Motor unit double discharges (i.e. doublets), which are excitatory potentials that occur at shorter-than-normal intervals (e.g. 5-10 ms) during normal muscle activation, are known to cause muscle force to exceed that predicted from a standard, linear summation of twitch forces. However, although a marked increase in the occurrence of motor unit doublets at the onset of a contraction has been observed after explosive-type exercise training, and has been correlated with changes in RFD (Van Cutsem et al., 1998), little is known about the influence of strength training on the physiological and biomechanical benefits derived from the phenomenon. The present research …

An Investigation Into The Creation Of Goal Scoring Opportunities In Women’S International Football; And A Comparison To Men’S International Football, Mark Scanlan

Theses: Doctorates and Masters

Football is the most popular sport in the world, played in over two hundred countries and it is governed by the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), who host a World Cup every four year for both men and women. Women’s football is growing in terms of popularity, with this growth in popularity, research into the women’s game has begun to emerge. However, to date there is very little published research in women’s football that describes effective attacking strategies and the creation of goal scoring opportunities (GSO). Video of each match (52) from the Women’s World Cup (Canada 2015) was …

Bone Fracture Incidence, Measurement And Adaptation: An Exploration Through The Continuum From Incidence To Measurement And Adaptation, Mark Jenkins

Theses: Doctorates and Masters

This research encompasses four studies exploring bone adaptation, fracture incidence, and preventative measures to decrease fracture risk and increase bone health. Study one was a clinical audit exploring incidence rates for appendicular fractures in children in Western Australia over ten years. Diagnostic and remedial approaches were explored in studies two, three and four by examining the between-day reliability of upper limb scans; reliability of the osteogenic index (OI) for upper-body strength and power exercises; and the diagnostic value or utility of using pQCT in disease profiling, respectively. Fracture rates in the limbs of children were found to be increasing each …

Gender Differences In Physical Performance Characteristics Of Competitive Surfers, Joanna Parsonage

Theses: Doctorates and Masters

Competitive surfing is judged on the performance and complexity of innovative and progressive manoeuvres. As such, surfers require the physical attributes of strength and power in both the upper and lower-body in order to facilitate performance. To date, there remains limited research pertaining to the physical performance characteristics of competitive female surfers, making it difficult to quantify the current gender gap in performance attributes. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis was fivefold: (1) to describe and compare the gender differences in physical performance characteristics of competitive surfers; (2) to investigate the reliability and validity of the isometric push-up (IPU), dynamic …

Braking Ground Reaction Force During 90deg Sidestep Cut And Leg Muscle Strength., Walter Yu, Sophia Nimphius, Greg Haff, Kazunori Nosaka

ECU Posters

Change of direction (COD) total time is influenced by linear sprint ability and technique. Therefore, COD performance should be isolated from COD total time by measuring only the time taken to perform the COD and COD technique should be controlled. Current COD studies focus on the plant and penultimate (PEN) braking steps (Dos’ Santos et al, 2017, Jones et al, 2017), however, deceleration during a COD extends beyond these two steps (Nedergaard et al, 2014), thus, more braking steps ground reaction forces (GRF) needs to be examined. Cross sectional COD studies have shown that athletes with faster COD performance were …

Optimum Power Loads For Elite Boxers: Case Study With The Brazilian National Olympic Team, Irineu Loturco, Chris Bishop, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Felipe Romano, Mateus Alves, Lucas A. Pereira, Michael Mcguigan

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

The purpose of this case study was to examine the effects of a resistance-training program based on the optimum power loads (OPL) method on neuromuscular performance of Olympic boxing athletes during preparation for the Rio-2016 Olympic Games. Twelve elite amateur boxers from the Brazilian National Olympic Team participated in this study. Athletes were assessed at four time-points, over two consecutive competitive seasons. In the first season (considered as “control period”), the athletes executed a non-controlled strength-power training program for 10 weeks. In the second season (a seven-week experimental period), the elite boxers performed 14 power-oriented training sessions, comprising bench press …

Time On Androgen Deprivation Therapy And Adaptations To Exercise: Secondary Analysis From A 12-Month Randomized Controlled Trial In Men With Prostate Cancer, Dennis R. Taaffe, Laurien M. Buffart, Robert U. Newton, Nigel Spry, James Denham, David Joseph, David Lamb, Suzanne K. Chambers, Daniel A. Galvao

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

Objectives

To explore if duration of previous exposure to androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in men with prostate cancer (PCa) undertaking a year-long exercise programme moderates the exercise response with regard to body composition and muscle performance, and also to explore the moderator effects of baseline testosterone, time since ADT, and baseline value of the outcome.

Patients and Methods

In a multicentre randomized controlled trial, 100 men who had previously undergone either 6 months (short-term) or 18 months (long-term) of ADT in combination with radiotherapy, as part of the TROG 03.04 RADAR trial, were randomized to 6 months supervised exercise, followed …

The Relationship Between Internal Training Load Variables During A Taper And Elite Weightlifting Success, Joseph O. C. Coyne, Greg Haff, A. J. Coutts, Robert U. Newton, Sophia Nimphius

Research outputs 2014 to 2021

No abstract provided.