Medicine and Health Sciences Commons^™

Simplified Antibiotic Regimens For Treatment Of Clinical Severe Infection In The Outpatient Setting When Referral Is Not Possible For Young Infants In Pakistan (Simplified Antibiotic Therapy Trial [Satt]): A Randomised, Open-Label, Equivalence Trial, Fatima Mir, Imran Nisar, Shiyam S. Tikmani, Benazir Baloch, Sadia Shakoor, Fyezah Jehan, Imran Ahmed, Simon Cousens, Anita K M Zaidi

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Parenteral antibiotic therapy for young infants (aged 0–59 days) with suspected sepsis is sometimes not available or feasible in countries with high neonatal mortality. Outpatient treatment could save lives in such settings. We aimed to assess the equivalence of two simplified antibiotic regimens, comprising fewer injections and oral rather than parenteral administration, compared with a reference treatment for young infants with clinical severe infection.
Methods: We undertook the Simplified Antibiotic Therapy Trial (SATT), a three-arm, randomised, open-label, equivalence trial in five communities in Karachi, Pakistan. We enrolled young infants (aged 0–59 days) who either presented at a primary health-care …

Global Research Priorities To Accelerate Early Child Development In The Sustainable Development Era, Tarun Dua, Mark Tomlinson, Elizabeth Tablante, Pia Britto, Aisha Khizar Yousafzai, Bernadette Daelmans, Gary L. Darmstadt

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

No abstract provided.

Predictors Of Diarrheal Mortality And Patterns Of Caregiver Health Seeking Behavior In In Karachi, Pakistan, Farah Naz Qamar, Umber Zaman, Farheen Quadri, Asia Khan, Babar Tasneem Shaikh, Iqbal Azam, Dilruba Nasrin, Karen Kotloff, Myron Levine, Nick Brown

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Pakistan is unfortunately among the five countries that contributed to the most deaths due to diarrhea and pneumonia in 2010. To explore factors associated with diarrheal deaths we assessed care-seeking behavior and other predictors of diarrhea-related mortality in children in selected low-income peri-urban communities of Karachi, Pakistan.
Methods: A mixed methods study (qualitative and quantitative) using matched case-control design and focus group discussions with parents of children with moderate to severe diarrhea (MSD) was undertaken. Cases were children Demographic, clinical, and care-related behavioral predictors of mortality were assessed. Conditional logistic regression was performed, matched adjusted odds ratios (mOR) are …

Mapping The Geography Of Child Mortality: A Key Step In Addressing Disparities, Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

No abstract provided.

Epidemiology And Impact Of Campylobacter Infection In Children In 8 Low-Resource Settings: Results From The Mal-Ed Study, Shahida Qureshi, Aneeta Hotwani, Sadia Shakoor, (Mal-Ed) Network Investigators, Imran Ahmed, Didar Alam, Syed Asad Ali, Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta, Muneera Rasheed, Sajid Bashir Soofi, Ali Turab, Anita K. M. Zaidi

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Enteropathogen infections have been associated with enteric dysfunction and impaired growth in children in low-resource settings. In a multisite birth cohort study (MAL-ED), we describe the epidemiology and impact of Campylobacter infection in the first 2 years of life.
Methods: Children were actively followed up until 24 months of age. Diarrheal and nondiarrheal stool samples were collected and tested by enzyme immunoassay for Campylobacter Stool and blood samples were assayed for markers of intestinal permeability and inflammation.
Results: A total of 1892 children had 7601 diarrheal and 26 267 nondiarrheal stool samples tested for Campylobacter We describe a high …

Neonatal Mortality Within 24 Hours Of Birth In Six Low- And Lower-Middle-Income Countries., Abdullah H. Baqui, Dipak K. Mitra, Muhammad Imran Nisar, Fyezah Jehan, Muhammad Ilyas, Murtaza Ali, Imran Ahmed, Shabina Arif, Sajid B. Soofi, Sachiyo Yoshida

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Objective: To estimate neonatal mortality, particularly within 24 hours of birth, in six low- and lower-middle-income countries.

Methods: We analysed epidemiological data on a total of 149 570 live births collected between 2007 and 2013 in six prospective randomized trials and a cohort study from predominantly rural areas of Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Pakistan, the United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia. The neonatal mortality rate and mortality within 24 hours of birth were estimated for all countries and mortality within 6 hours was estimated for four countries with available data. The findings were compared with published model-based estimates of neonatal …

Potential For Task-Sharing To Lady Health Workers For Identification And Emergency Management Of Pre-Eclampsia At Community Level In Pakistan, Rehana A. Salam, Rahat Najam Qureshi, Sana Sheikh, Asif Raza Khowaja, Diane Sawchuck, Marianne Vidler, Peter Von Dadelszen, Shujaat Zaidi, Zulfiqar Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: An estimated 276 Pakistani women die for every 100,000 live births; with eclampsia accounting for about 10% of these deaths. Community health workers contribute to the existing health system in Pakistan under the banner of the Lady Health Worker (LHW) Programme and are responsible to provide a comprehensive package of antenatal services. However, there is a need to increase focus on early identification and prompt diagnosis of pre-eclampsia in community settings, since women with mild pre-eclampsia often present without symptoms. This study aims to explore the potential for task-sharing to LHWs for the community-level management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia …

Health Care Provider Knowledge And Routine Management Of Pre-Eclampsia In Pakistan, Sana Sheikh, Rahat Najam Qureshi, Asif Raza Khowaja, Rehana Salam, Marianne Vidler, Diane Sawchuck, Peter Von Dadelszen, Shujat Zaidi, Zulfiqar Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Maternal mortality ratio is 276 per 100,000 live births in Pakistan. Eclampsia is responsible for one in every ten maternal deaths despite the fact that management of this disease is inexpensive and has been available for decades. Many studies have shown that health care providers in low and middle-income countries have limited training to manage patients with eclampsia. Hence, we aimed to explore the knowledge of different cadres of health care providers regarding aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia and current management practices.
Methods: We conducted a mixed method study in the districts of Hyderabad and Matiari …

Effects Of Responsive Stimulation And Nutrition Interventions On Children's Development And Growth At Age 4 Years In A Disadvantaged Population In Pakistan: A Longitudinal Follow-Up Of A Cluster-Randomised Factorial Effectiveness Trial, Aisha K. Yousafzai, Jelena Obradovic, Muneera A. Rasheed, Arjumand Rizvi, Ximena A. Portilla, Nicole Tirado-Strayer, Saima Siyal, Uzma Memon

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: A previous study in Pakistan assessed the effectiveness of delivering responsive stimulation and enhanced nutrition interventions to young children. Responsive stimulation significantly improved children's cognitive, language, and motor development at 2 years of age. Both interventions significantly improved parenting skills, with responsive stimulation showing larger effects. In this follow-up study, we investigated whether interventions had benefits on children's healthy development and care at 4 years of age.
Methods: We implemented a follow-up study of the initial, community-based cluster-randomised effectiveness trial, which was conducted through the Lady Health Worker programme in Sindh, Pakistan. We re-enrolled 1302 mother-child dyads (87% of …

Community's Perceptions Of Pre-Eclampsia And Eclampsia In Sindh Pakistan: A Qualitative Study, Asif Raza Khowaja, Rahat Najam Qureshi, Sana Sheikh, Shujaat Zaidi, Rehana Salam, Diane Sawchuck, Marianne Vidler, Peter Von Dadelszen, Zulfiqar Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Maternal mortality is of global public health concern and >99% of maternal deaths occur in less developed countries. The common causes of direct maternal death are hemorrhage, sepsis and pre-eclampsia/eclampsia. In Pakistan, pre-eclampsia/eclampsia deaths represents one-third of maternal deaths reported at the tertiary care hospital settings. This study explored community perceptions, and traditional management practices about pre-eclampsia/eclampsia.
Methods: A qualitative study was conducted in Sindh Province of Pakistan from February to July 2012. Twenty-six focus groups were conducted, 19 with women of reproductive age/mothers-in-law (N=173); and 7 with husbands/fathers-in-law (N=65). The data were transcribed verbatim in Sindhi and Urdu, …

The Feasibility Of Community Level Interventions For Pre-Eclampsia In South Asia And Sub-Saharan Africa: A Mixed-Methods Design, Asif Raza Khowaja, Rahat Najam Qureshi, Diane Sawchuck, Olufemi T. Oladapo, Olalekan O. Adetoro, Elizabeth A. Orenuga, Mrutyunjaya Bellad, Ashalata Mallapur, Umesh Charantimath, Esperanca Sevene

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Globally, pre-eclampsia and eclampsia are major contributors to maternal and perinatal mortality; of which the vast majority of deaths occur in less developed countries. In addition, a disproportionate number of morbidities and mortalities occur due to delayed access to health services. The Community Level Interventions for Pre-eclampsia (CLIP) Trial aims to task-shift to community health workers the identification and emergency management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia to improve access and timely care. Literature revealed paucity of published feasibility assessments prior to initiating large-scale community-based interventions. Arguably, well-conducted feasibility studies can provide valuable information about the potential success of clinical trials …

Health Care Seeking Behaviours In Pregnancy In Rural Sindh, Pakistan: A Qualitative Study, Rahat Najam Qureshi, Sana Sheikh, Asif Raza Khowaja, Zahra Hoodbhoy, Shujaat Zaidi, Diane Sawchuck, Marianne Vidler, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Peter Von Dadeslzen

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Pakistan has alarmingly high numbers of maternal mortality along with suboptimal care-seeking behaviour. It is essential to identify the barriers and facilitators that women and families encounter, when deciding to seek maternal care services. This study aimed to understand health-seeking patterns of pregnant women in rural Sindh, Pakistan.
Methods: A qualitative study was undertaken in rural Sindh, Pakistan as part of a large multi-country study in 2012. Thirty three focus group discussions and 26 in-depth interviews were conducted with mothers [n=173], male decision-makers [n=64], Lady Health Workers [n=64], Lady Health Supervisors [n=10], Women Medical Officers [n=9] and Traditional Birth …

Cost Of Management Of Severe Pneumonia In Young Children: Systematic Analysis, Shanshan Zhang, Peter M. Sammon, Isobel King, Ana Lucia Andrade, Cristiana M. Toscano, Sheila N. Araujo, Anushua Sinha, Shabir A. Madh, Gulam Khandaker, Jiehui Kevin Yin, Robert Booy, Tanvir M. Huda, Qazi S. Rahman, Shams El Arifeen, Angela Gentile, Norberto Giglio, Mejbah U. Bhuiyan, Katharine Sturm Ramirez, Bradford D. Gessner, Mardiati Nadjib, Phyllis J. Carosone– Link, Eric Af Simões, Jason A. Child, Imran Ahmed, Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta, Sajid Bashir Soofi

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Childhood pneumonia is a major cause of childhood illness and the second leading cause of child death globally. Understanding the costs associated with the management of childhood pneumonia is essential for resource allocation and priority setting for child health.
Methods: We conducted a systematic review to identify studies reporting data on the cost of management of pneumonia in children younger than 5 years old. We collected unpublished cost data on non–severe, severe and very severe pneumonia through collaboration with an international working group. We extracted data on cost per episode, duration of hospital stay and unit cost of interventions …

Norovirus Infection And Acquired Immunity In 8 Countries: Results From The Mal-Ed Study, Furqan Kabir, Adil Kalam, Pascal Bessong Pascal Bessong, Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta, Anita K. M. Zaidi, (Mal-Ed) Network Investigators, Imran Ahmed, Didar Alam, Syed Asad Ali, Shahida Qureshi, Muneera Rasheed, Sajid Bashir Soofi, Ali Turab, Aisha Khizar Yousafzai

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Norovirus is an important cause of childhood diarrhea. We present data from a longitudinal, multicountry study describing norovirus epidemiology during the first 2 years of life.
Methods: A birth cohort of 1457 children across 8 countries contributed 7077 diarrheal stools for norovirus testing. A subset of 199 children contributed additional asymptomatic samples (2307) and diarrheal stools (770), which were used to derive incidence rates and evaluate evidence for acquired immunity.
Results: Across sites, 89% of children experienced at least 1 norovirus infection before 24 months, and 22.7% of all diarrheal stools were norovirus positive. Severity of norovirus-positive diarrhea was …

Evaluation Of Antibiotic Use In Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Of A Developing Country, Qalab Abbas, Anwar Ul Haq, Raman Kumar, Syed Asad Ali, Kashif Hussain, Sadia Shakoor

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) patients are often prescribed antibiotics with a low threshold in comparison to patients elsewhere. Irrational antibiotics use can lead to rapid emergence of drug resistance, so surveillance of their use is important.
Objectives: To evaluate the use of antibiotics in relation to bacteriological findings in PICU of a Tertiary Hospital.
Methods: Retrospective review of medical records of all children (age 1 month-16 years) admitted in our closed multidisciplinary-cardiothoracic PICU from January to June 2013 was performed, after approval from Ethical Review Committee. For each antibiotic, indication (prophylactic, empiric, therapeutic) and duration of use were …

Stop Stunting: Situation And Way Forward To Improve Maternal, Child And Adolescent Nutrition In Afghanistan, Ariel Higgins Steele, Piyali Mustaphi, Sherin Varkey, Humayoun Ludin, Najibullah Safi, Zulfiqar Ahmed Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

No abstract provided.

Systematic Review On Human Resources For Health Interventions To Improve Maternal Health Outcomes: Evidence From Low- And Middle-Income Countries, Zohra S. Lassi, Nabiha B. Musavi, Blerta Maliqi, Nadia Mansoor, Andres De Francisco, Kadidiatou Toure, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

There is a broad consensus and evidence that shows qualified, accessible, and responsive human resources for health (HRH) can make a major impact on the health of the populations. At the same time, there is widespread recognition that HRH crises particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) impede the achievement of better health outcomes/targets. In order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), equitable access to a skilled and motivated health worker within a performing health system is need to be ensured. This review contributes to the vast pool of literature towards the assessment of HRH for maternal health and …

Safety Netting Through The Prevention And Detection Of Child Abuse In Low And Middle Income Countries: Lessons From Pakistan, Kanwal Nayani, Muhammad Akbar Baig, Nick Brown, Asad Mian

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

No abstract provided.

Diagnostic Methods To Determine Microbiology Of Postpartum Endometritis In South Asia: Laboratory Methods Protocol Used In The Postpartum Sepsis Study: A Prospective Cohort Study, Sadia Shakoor, Megan E. Reller, Amnesty Lefevre, Aneeta Hotwani, Shahida M. Qureshi, Farheen Yousuf, Mohammad Shahidul Islam, Nicholas Connor, Iftekhar Rafiqullah, Fatima Mir

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: The South Asian region has the second highest risk of maternal death in the world. To prevent maternal deaths due to sepsis and to decrease the maternal mortality ratio as per the World Health Organization Millenium Development Goals, a better understanding of the etiology of endometritis and related sepsis is required. We describe microbiological laboratory methods used in the maternal Postpartum Sepsis Study, which was conducted in Bangladesh and Pakistan, two populous countries in South Asia.
Methods/Design: Postpartum maternal fever in the community was evaluated by a physician and blood and urine were collected for routine analysis and culture. …

Genomic Diversity Of Epec Associated With Clinical Presentations Of Differing Severity, Tracy H. Hazen, Michael S. Donnenberg, Sandra Panchalingam, Martin Antonio, Anowar Hossain, Inacio Mandomando, John Benjamin Ochieng, Shahida Qureshi, Farheen Quadri, Anita K. M. Zaidi

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) are diarrhoeagenic E. coli, and are a significant cause of gastrointestinal illness among young children in developing countries. Typical EPEC are identified by the presence of the bundle-forming pilus encoded by a virulence plasmid, which has been linked to an increased severity of illness, while atypical EPEC lack this feature. Comparative genomics of 70 total EPEC from lethal (LI), non-lethal symptomatic (NSI) or asymptomatic (AI) cases of diarrhoeal illness in children enrolled in the Global Enteric Multicenter Study was used to investigate the genomic differences in EPEC isolates obtained from individuals with various clinical outcomes. A …

Atrial Thrombus In A Premature Newborn Following Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation, Syed Rehan Ali, Shakeel Ahmed, Nadeem Aslam, Heeramani Lohana

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Critically ill newborns, whether term or preterm, are at great risk for developing symptomatic thromboembolic disease. Comorbidities like inflammation, DIC, fluctuations in cardiac output, congenital heart disease, as well as central venous or arterial catheters, are the predisposing risk factors. Clinically symptomatic or asymptomatic cases are usually picked up by echocardiography, usually done for other indications. Management usually comprises of observation, heparin therapy, thrombo-embolectomy, and catheter directed revascularization. We present a case of premature neonate who developed thrombus at inter-atrial septum as a possible consequence of cardiopulmonary resuscitation, detected by echocardiography. Conversely, there is always a possibility of paradoxical emboli …

A Histopathological Outlook On Nephrotic Syndrome: A Pediatric Perspective, M K. Arif, M Arif, N Amjad

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

The developing world is observing changing histopathological patterns of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS). However, the true burden of non-minimal change disease (non-MCD) presenting as INS remains unestimated owing to a paucity of data on renal biopsies. Data were collected from January 2006 to June 2014 on 75 children up to 16 years of age who underwent renal biopsies for INS. Mean age at biopsy was 11.2 ± 3.7 years. The male to female ratio was 1.5:1. A total of 25 (33.3%) children were steroid sensitive, 36 (48%) were steroid resistant, 10 (13.3%) were steroid dependent and 4 (5.3%) came with …

Hyperlactetemia And Its Trends In Critically Ill Children Admitted In Pediatric Intensive Care Unit Of A Developing Country, Qalab Abbas, Muhammad Tariq Jamil, Leena Jafri, Anwar Ul Haque, Vivek Khetpal

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: There is increasing evidence that in setting of critical ailments clinical signs lag biomarkers like Lactate and hyperlactetemia can be the only marker for this disorder. This study was conducted to describe the incidence of hyperlactatemia in critically ill children and its association with outcome.Methods: Retrospective review of medical records of all children who had their lactic acid (LA) levels measured during their admission in PICU from January 2014 to December 2015 was done. Demographic and clinical variables were recorded along with PICU therapies, outcome (Survived or expired) and development of multi-organ dysfunction. Results are presented as frequency with …

Effect Of Mobile Phone Text Messages Reminders On Uptake Of Routine Immunization Among Children In Pakistan- Study Protocol For A Randomized Clinical Trial, Abdul Momin Kazi, Murtaza Ali, Khurram Zubair, Hussain Kalimuddin, Syed Asad Ali

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Introduction: Routine Immunization (RI) is considered one of the best public health interventions to decrease child morbidity and mortality. The RI coverage in Pakistan is still well below the desired level, leading to continued polio transmission, large measles outbreaks and thousands of deaths from vaccine-preventable illnesses. Different innovative and cost effective strategies are required to look into for enhancement in vaccination uptake and coverage. We plan to test the effectiveness of reminders to parents/caregivers on cell phones through short messaging system (SMS) in improving vaccine uptake and on-time routine immunization for children in Pakistan.
Methods and Analysis: A parallel-randomized controlled …

Spectrum Of Intracerebral Hemorrhage In Children: A Report From Picu Of A Resource Limited Country, Qalab Abbas, Qurat Ul Ain Merchant, Bushra Nasir, Anwar Ul Haque, Basit Salam, Gohar Javed

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) in children is a rare but disabling disease that accounts for almost half cases of stroke. We report our experience of ICH in children. Retrospective review of medical records of children (1 month-16 years) admitted in Pediatric Intensive Care Unit between January 2007 and December 2014 was done. Data collected included age, gender, presentation, examination findings, neuroimaging done (CT, MRI, and angiography) management (conservative/intervention), and outcome. Results are presented as frequency and percentages. Of the total 50 patients, 58% were male and 26% were <1 year. On presentation 44% had vomiting, 42% had seizures, and GCS < 8 while 40% had altered level of consciousness. Single bleed was present in 88%, 94% had supratentorial bleed, and 32% had intraventricular extension. 72% had bleed volume of <30 mL and 8% had >60 mL. CT scan was done in 98% patients and MRI in 34%, …

Right-Sided Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia And Myelomeningocele: A Rare Association, Syed Rehan Ali, Shakeel Ahmed

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a rare birth defect with a prevalence of < 0.5 per 1,000 live births. Majority of these defects are left-sided as most studies suggest that frequency of right-sided CDH was 10% of the total. The association of CDH with myelomeningocele (MMC) is extremely rare; as in Sweed's study of 116 consecutive cases of CDH, the incidence of associated MMC with CDH was stated as 4.3%. There has been one previous case report of leftsided CDH, MMC and hydrocephalus prenatally diagnosed; but to the best of authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of the above constellation with a right-sided CDH diagnosed prenatally.

Mumps Myocarditis: A Forgotten Disease?, Sheraz Hussain, Mohammad Faizan Zahid, Arshalooz J. Rahman, Mehnaz A. Atiq, S. H. Ibrahim

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Mumps is an acute viral illness that follows a self-limiting course but up to 10% of cases have a complicated course with the involvement of other organ systems. Myocarditis is reported as a complication but the incidence has greatly fallen ever since the development of the mumps vaccine. A child presented to our department with parotid swelling and fever. Persistent tachycardia with irregular pulse led to further cardiac work up which showed decreased ejection fraction and raised serum cardiac enzymes, indicating myocardial damage. With ionotropic agents and supportive care, there was complete normalization of ejection fraction and serum cardiac enzyme …

Evaluation Of The Uptake And Impact Of Neonatal Vitamin A Supplementation Delivered Through The Lady Health Worker Programme On Neonatal And Infant Morbidity And Mortality In Rural Pakistan: An Effectiveness Trial, Sajid Soofi, Shabina Ariff, Kamran Sadiq, Atif Habib, Zaid Bhatti, Imran Ahmad, Masawar Hussain, Nabeela Ali, Simon Cousens, Zulfiqar A Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Despite evidence for the benefits of vitamin A supplementation (VAS) among children 6 to 59 months of age, the feasibility of introduction and potential benefit of VAS in the neonatal period in public health programmes is uncertain. Objective: The primary objective was to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of early neonatal VAS (single dose of 50 000 international units within 48–72 hours after birth) delivered through the public sector Lady Health Worker (LHW) programme in rural Pakistan and to document its association with a reduction in mortality at 6 months of age.
Methods: A community-based, cluster randomised, …

Evaluation Of Solar Disinfection Of Water Intervention Delivered Through Lady Health Workers In Reduction Of Diarrheal Episodes In Under Five Children, Shabina Ariff, Ubaidullah Khan, Ali Turab, Imtiaz Hussain, Atif Habib, Tarab Mansoor, Dania Mallick, Zamir Suhag, Zaid Bhatti, Imran Ahmed, Sajid Bashir Soofi, Zulfiqar A Bhutta

Department of Paediatrics and Child Health

Background: Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) is a simple, inexpensive and sustainable means of daily household treatment for drinking and storage of water. Globally, over a billion people lack access to safe drinking water. As many as half million under five children die annually due to diarrheal illnesses. Most of these deaths are concentrated in Africa and South Asia. Unsafe water is one of the most critical risk factors for diarrhoea. Systematic reviews indicate that interventions to improve the microbial quality of drinking water in households are effective at reducing diarrhoea illnesses and thereby contribute significantly in reducing deaths due to …