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Articles 1 - 30 of 105
Full-Text Articles in Life Sciences
"The Relevant History And Medical And Ethical Future Viability Of Xenotransplantation", Morgan Janes
"The Relevant History And Medical And Ethical Future Viability Of Xenotransplantation", Morgan Janes
Augustana Center for the Study of Ethics Essay Contest
Xenotransplantation, the transplantation of organs or tissues from one species to another, presents a complex nexus of medical, ethical, and cultural considerations. In this article, we delve into the multifaceted landscape of xenotransplantation, beginning with a thorough examination of its relevant historical trajectory. From early experiments to recent advancements, we chart the evolution of this field, setting the stage for a nuanced discussion. We then confront the central issue: the true medical viability of xenotransplantation and the looming specter of operative risk. By scrutinizing the ethical dilemmas inherent in xenotransplantation through a multicultural lens, we illuminate the diverse perspectives that …
Drivers Of Macroinvertebrate Community Integrity Within Mixed Urban And Agricultural Dominated Mississippi Tributary Watersheds, Matthew R. Straus, Bethany Mabel Lian Schorr, Kevin Geedey, Michael Reisner, Benjamin Ford
Drivers Of Macroinvertebrate Community Integrity Within Mixed Urban And Agricultural Dominated Mississippi Tributary Watersheds, Matthew R. Straus, Bethany Mabel Lian Schorr, Kevin Geedey, Michael Reisner, Benjamin Ford
Biology: Student Scholarship & Creative Works
The “urban stream syndrome” refers to a multitude of impacts caused by urbanization including flashier hydrograph, elevated concentrations of nutrients and contaminants, altered channel morphology and stability, reduced biotic richness, with increased dominance of tolerant species, reduced base flow and increased suspended solids. The drivers of these “symptoms” include impervious surfaces, piping in stormwater drainages, habitat and forest loss, water supply and sewer leaking, and direct alterations to channel morphology and flow. The goal of this study was to assess the integrity of the macroinvertebrate community and determine the most significant drivers of such integrity at the catchment, riparian zone, …
Non-Native Coccinellid Beetles And Land Use Abundance Patterns In The Quad Cities Region, Jack Hughes, Tierney Brosius, Michael Reisner
Non-Native Coccinellid Beetles And Land Use Abundance Patterns In The Quad Cities Region, Jack Hughes, Tierney Brosius, Michael Reisner
Biology: Student Scholarship & Creative Works
Harmonia axyridis was introduced in 1916. This species of coccinellid beetle is considered a desirable species for agriculture practices because of its ability to control pests. There is increasing evidence that H. axyridis may be outcompeting native species which could be contributing to the decline of some species that are disappearing from the landscape. Harmonia axyridis has a large migration range of 2 Km enabling the species to affect a large area of land. Invasive species often increase in abundance in urban landscapes which may be the case with H. axyridis. During the summer of 2021 we investigated H. axyridis …
Land Use Effects On Fish Assemblages In Mississippi River Tributaries In Scott County, Ia And Rock Island County, Il, Benjamin Ford, Kevin Geedey
Land Use Effects On Fish Assemblages In Mississippi River Tributaries In Scott County, Ia And Rock Island County, Il, Benjamin Ford, Kevin Geedey
Urban Watershed Project
Fish assemblages are viable indicators of stream quality because they respond predictably to changes in abiotic and biotic factors, such as habitat and water quality, and human exploitation and species additions. In this a study we examined the relationship between fish abundance, diversity, and IBI (Index of Biotic Integrity), and urban and agricultural land use in Scott County, IA and Rock Island County, IL. Fish were sampled during the summer of 2021 within 12 local watersheds, which contain a variety of land use types. We followed a standardized sampling method of a single pass with a backpack electrofishing unit through …
Hot Spot Analysis Of Potential Sanitary Sewer Exfiltration In Crystal Creek Watershed, Adam Schumacher, Michael Reisner, Kevin Geedey
Hot Spot Analysis Of Potential Sanitary Sewer Exfiltration In Crystal Creek Watershed, Adam Schumacher, Michael Reisner, Kevin Geedey
Independent Research Projects
Crystal Creek in Davenport Iowa drains suburban and park areas before draining into Duck Creek, a tributary of the Mississippi River. Contact recreation is a designated use for all the streams. As a pilot project with the city of Davenport, Augustana College’s Upper Mississippi Center assessed this stream in the summer of 2021 to determine if relatively inexpensive monitoring tools could be used to assess possible sewage contamination in that stream. Running through multiple residential areas, sewer lines follow the studied region of the creek, leading to the hotspot focus that was conducted by student researchers. Fecal coliform, optical brighteners, …
The Role Of Leaf Decomposition In Macroinvertebrate Colonization, Bethany Mabel Lian Schorr, Kevin Geedey
The Role Of Leaf Decomposition In Macroinvertebrate Colonization, Bethany Mabel Lian Schorr, Kevin Geedey
Independent Research Projects
Decomposition plays an important ecological role in carbon and nutrient cycling that supply food and energy resources to food webs. This study investigates the potential role that leaf decomposition of different leaf species may play in macroinvertebrate assemblages in upper Midwest streams. We hypothesized that the different decomposition rates experienced with different leaf species and in different streams would have an effect on invertebrate colonization due to the variance in nutrient availability. Due to altered fire regimes and other influences, forests are experiencing declines in fire-adapted, heliophytic species such as oaks and compositional shifts toward shade-tolerant, mesophytic species such as …
Assessment Of The Negative Role Amur Honeysuckle Has On Urban Forest Diversity, Hayley Schlabowske, Paige Lundborg, Jason Koontz, Michael Reisner
Assessment Of The Negative Role Amur Honeysuckle Has On Urban Forest Diversity, Hayley Schlabowske, Paige Lundborg, Jason Koontz, Michael Reisner
Independent Research Projects
Lonicera maackii (Amur Honeysuckle), an invasive shrub species, has out-competed native species in urban riparian zones for decades due to its ability to receive more sunlight and it also secretes an allelochemical from its leaves that negatively impacts the ecosystems. Our research question is how does Lonicera maackii affect native plant species in the herbaceous understory? Five forest communities were sampled in Northwest Illinois. Sites were separated into four different categories with L. maackii only, Garlic Mustard (Alliaria petiolata) only, Neither invasive species, and sites where both occur. There were 12 sites for each of the four categories resulting in …
Light Pollution Levels On Beaches: How Window Tinting Effects Disorientation Of Sea Turtles On Hilton Head Island, Kathryn (Kate) Hettiger
Light Pollution Levels On Beaches: How Window Tinting Effects Disorientation Of Sea Turtles On Hilton Head Island, Kathryn (Kate) Hettiger
Biology: Student Scholarship & Creative Works
Loggerhead sea turtles, an endangered species, are decreasing at alarming rates worldwide. Artificial light from beachfront hotels on Hilton Head Island are causing disorientation in Loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings affecting their ability to successfully find the ocean. To mitigate this, exterior windows facing the ocean will be tinted using either tinting spray, which will be implemented at the Marriott Grande Ocean, or using tinting film, which will be implemented at the Marriott Westin. During the typical nesting and hatching season (May-October), sea turtle hatchling tracks will be recorded using drones to compare the effects of various levels of light pollution …
Identification Of Uncommon Antibiotic-Producing Illinois Soil Isolates, Lesly Muniz, Dr. Lori Scott
Identification Of Uncommon Antibiotic-Producing Illinois Soil Isolates, Lesly Muniz, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on student sourcing antibiotic discovery from the soil. We researched tester strains B. subtilis and E. coli from the soil isolates obtained. We further verified if the isolates were common antibiotic bacteria. Unfortunately, this project heavily relied on biochemical tests, colony morphology, and Gram stains to reject or fail to reject our hypothesis. Our goal was to discover new antibiotic-producing bacteria that could be beneficial in combating ESKAPE strains. A proper PCR and DNA extraction would be required …
Isolated Antibiotic Producing Bacteria In Local Soil Samples Determined To Be Bacillus, Cassidy Potter, Dr. Lori Scott
Isolated Antibiotic Producing Bacteria In Local Soil Samples Determined To Be Bacillus, Cassidy Potter, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
Nosocomial pathogens are multi-drug resistant to antibiotics that fight bacterial infections posing danger to the public health, the most dangerous of them being the ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp.). This project is a collabortaion with the TIny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on studentsourcing antibiotic discovery from the soil. TEPI allows student-led research on local soil samples from Bettendorf, IA to discover potential novel antibiotic producing bacteria that could potentially treat ESKAPE pathogens and reduce public health risk. Two soil isolates …
Isolating Antibiotic-Producing Bacteria From Soil, Michelle Santiago, Dr. Lori Scott
Isolating Antibiotic-Producing Bacteria From Soil, Michelle Santiago, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
As the antibiotic crisis becomes stronger, we are in need of finding more novel antibiotics. This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on student sourcing antibiotic discovery from soil. The soil isolates were determined to be part of the Bacillus and Pseudomonas genus.
Putative Antibiotic Producer: A Pseudomonas Genus With Antibiotic Properties, John Tworek, Dr. Lori Scott
Putative Antibiotic Producer: A Pseudomonas Genus With Antibiotic Properties, John Tworek, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
There is a series antibiotic crisis in the world with catastrophic consequences if action is not take. Many diseases caused by bacteria are becoming untreatable because of the amount of pathogens resistant to the effect of antibiotics. The most prolific bacteria are the ESKAPE bacteria. They are nonsocomial pathogens that exhibit multi-drug resistance and virulence. My project will be working alongside the Tiny Earth Project (TEPI) to educate the public about the antibiotic crisis as well as obtaining a soil sample to possible discover new antibiotics. The DNA sequencing data retrieved from soil isolates against the two ESKAPE tester strains …
Screening For Antibiotic-Producers In Soil From A Garden, Long Tran, Dr. Lori Scott
Screening For Antibiotic-Producers In Soil From A Garden, Long Tran, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
Multidrug-resistant pathogens are the leading cause of nosocomial infection, which killed more than 30,000 people in the United States every year. Among these, ESKAPE strains bugs, which comprise six highly drug-resistant bacteria, pose the greatest challenge to the healthcare system. In order to fight the antibiotic-resistant crises, novel antibiotic-producers must be discovered. This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on student sourcing antibiotic discovery from the soil. Pseudomonas was revealed to produce a zone of inhibition against Bacillus subtilis on LB media. The next step …
Unknown Soil Isolates From Urban Park As Antibiotic Producers, Sydney Parra, Dr. Lori Scott
Unknown Soil Isolates From Urban Park As Antibiotic Producers, Sydney Parra, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
Antibiotics play an important role in combating bacterial infections. Recently, antibiotic resistance has increased which has pushed scientist to find new and effective antibiotic drugs. Students conducted research on potential antibiotic producers from soil samples in the Quad Cities region. The purpose of the study was to find novel antibiotic producers from bacteria in soil and test soil isolates against two strains of bacteria, B. subtilis and E. coli. Two unknown soil isolate strains were found to be potential antibiotic producers against B. subtilis. Future studies are needed to conduct gene sequencing on these two …
Pseudomonas And Bacillus As Potential Sources Of Novel Antibiotics, Cory Jayne, Dr. Lori Scott
Pseudomonas And Bacillus As Potential Sources Of Novel Antibiotics, Cory Jayne, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
With an increase in antibiotic resistance within the medical field the need for novel antibiotics is evident. Through collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative, we hope to find novel antibiotics through bacteria found in soil. We were able to successfully isolate two microbes that showed broad spectrum antibiotics against both Staphylococcus epidermis and Bacillus subtilis. Through further exploration and collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative, we might be able to discover novel antibiotics.
Antibiotic Producing Microbes Found In Soil, Rediat Ephrem, Dr. Lori Scott
Antibiotic Producing Microbes Found In Soil, Rediat Ephrem, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
The antibiotic crisis is a growing concern as more and more diseases are becoming untreatable due to antibiotic resistance. Of all antibiotic resistant bacteria, the ESKAPE strains are the most dangerous because of their association with higher mortality rates and multidrug resistance. In this study, ESKAPE-like strains will be studied as they are similar to the ESKAPE strains and provide comparable data in a safe manner. Soil samples are evaluated to test the presence of any microbes that may be antibiotic producers. This project is in collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of …
Pseudomonas And Bacillus Soil Isolates Produce Antibiotics, Chelsea Brandt, Dr. Lori Scott
Pseudomonas And Bacillus Soil Isolates Produce Antibiotics, Chelsea Brandt, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
The recent emergence of antibiotic resistance bacterial strains presents a significant challenge and threat to human healthcare. While new methods of treatment such as bacteriophage therapy and combinations of existing antibiotics are being researched, the human population is in dire need of new antibiotics to replace those that are ineffective. This research addresses this need by identifying antibiotic producing bacteria in a soil sample from Davenport, IA. This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on studentsourcing antibiotic discovery from soil. Microbiology lab techniques and 16S …
Identification Of Antibiotic Producing Soil Bacteria Against Bacillus Subtilis, Morgan Brockhouse, Dr. Lori Scott
Identification Of Antibiotic Producing Soil Bacteria Against Bacillus Subtilis, Morgan Brockhouse, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on student-sourcing antibiotic discovery from soil. Individual strains of soil bacteria were isolated and produced antibiotic against Bacillus subtilis. Two of these samples were sequenced using the 16S rRNA gene to reveal they are very closely related to the genus Pseudomonas.
The Identification Of Antibiotic-Producing Bacillus From Soil, Daniel Coe, Dr. Lori Scott
The Identification Of Antibiotic-Producing Bacillus From Soil, Daniel Coe, Dr. Lori Scott
Identifying and Characterizing Novel Antibiotic Producing Microbes From the Soil
One of the largest issues facing the scientific and medical communities today is antibacterial resistance. It is important that we continue to discover and develop new antibiotics to keep up with the rapidly adapting bacteria that could potentially cause a wide scale pandemic. The purpose of this study is to identify new antibiotic producing bacteria as well as familiarize ourselves with the practices and procedures that industry professionals use. This project is a collaboration with the Tiny Earth Project Initiative (TEPI), which is a global network of educators and students focused on student sourcing antibiotic discovery from soil. We were …
Clinical Implications Of Evolutionary Modeling Of Cancer Progression, Kelsey Heiland
Clinical Implications Of Evolutionary Modeling Of Cancer Progression, Kelsey Heiland
Biology: Student Scholarship & Creative Works
Evolutionary theory of cancer was developed in 1976 by cancer research Peter Nowell and has illuminated the path toward increasing safety and efficacy of clinical treatment strategies. Major foundations that makeup the complexity in Darwinian framework of cancer includes clonal evolution, clonal expansion, and competition. Due to these characteristics, virtually all types of cancer have evolutionary capabilities to reject or adapt and become resistant to pharmaceutical therapies. Despite compelling evidence of these process, evolutionary modeling of cancer continues to be underutilized in clinical settings. Contributions to this include the complex adaptive mechanisms that tools fail to detect or are unable …
Sexual Assault On College Campuses: The Links Between Hegemonic Masculinity, College Sports, And Sexual Violence, Vanessa Iroegbulem
Sexual Assault On College Campuses: The Links Between Hegemonic Masculinity, College Sports, And Sexual Violence, Vanessa Iroegbulem
Sexual Ethics
This paper seeks to explore the social and neurobiological factors that shape men into sexual aggressors by rewarding violent behaviors. It will critique the exploitation and the commodification of male bodies through sports, namely football.
Mrub_3019 Casa Gene Is An Ortholog To E. Coli B2760, Kelsey Heiland, Dr. Lori Scott
Mrub_3019 Casa Gene Is An Ortholog To E. Coli B2760, Kelsey Heiland, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This research is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome annotation project which aims to predict gene function with various bioinformatics tools. We investigated the function of Mrub_3019, which encodes the CasA protein involved in the multi-subunit effector complex for the CRISPR-Cas immunity system and predicted it to be an ortholog of E. coli K12 MG1655 b2760 (casA). We predicted that Mrub_3019 encodes the protein CasA, which is involved in PAM recognition of CRISPR interference pathway. Foreign DNA will bind to CasA, which signals Cas3 for helicase-mediated DNA degradation. Our hypothesis is supported by low E-values for pairwise alignment in NCBI …
Mrub_3015 Is Orthologous To The B2757 Gene Found In Escherichia Coli Coding For Casd, Ramona Collins, Dr. Lori Scott
Mrub_3015 Is Orthologous To The B2757 Gene Found In Escherichia Coli Coding For Casd, Ramona Collins, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the biological function of the gene Mrub_3015, which we hypothesize is a component of the CRISPR-Cas prokaryotic defense system. We predict that Mrub_3015 (DNA coordinates 3055550...3056245) encodes the the CRISPR-associated protein cas5, which is integral in maintaining the crRNA-DNA structure, keeping the complex from base pairing with the target phage DNA. Our hypothesis is supported by identical hits for Mrub_3015 and b2527 to the KEGG, Pfam, TIGRfam, CDD and PDB databases as well as a …
Mrub_3018 Is Orthologous To E. Coli B2759 (Casb), Kyle Parker, Dr. Lori Scott
Mrub_3018 Is Orthologous To E. Coli B2759 (Casb), Kyle Parker, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We studied the biological activity of the Mrub_3018 gene, which we hypothesize is orthologous to E. coli gene B2759. We predicted that Mrub_3018(DNA coordinates 3057916… 3058524) encodes the protein CasB. CasB is a protein in the CRISPR CASCADE that will function as a structural protein. When the rest of the proteins form an “S” formation CasB will connect the front and back of the “S” creating a back bone for the structure. It will help bind DNA …
Mrub_3014 Is Orthologous To B2756, Samir Abdelkarim, Dr. Lori Scott
Mrub_3014 Is Orthologous To B2756, Samir Abdelkarim, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the biological function of the gene Mrub_3014, which we hypothesize is a component of the CRISPR-Cas prokaryotic defense system. We predict that Mrub_3014 (DNA coordinates 3054943..3055575) encodes CRISPR-associated protein Cse3/case which function as an endonuclease. Our hypothesis is supported by identical hits for Mrub_3014 and b2756 to the KEGG, Pfam, TIGRfam, CDD and PDB databases, as well as a low E-value for a pairwise NCBI BLAST comparison. Both protein products are predicted to be localized …
M. Ruber Mrub_3013 Is Orthologous To E. Coli B2755, Laura Butcher, Dr. Lori Scott
M. Ruber Mrub_3013 Is Orthologous To E. Coli B2755, Laura Butcher, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the biological function of gene Mrub_3013, which we hypothesize is orthologous to b2755 in E. coli K12 MG1655 (a.k.a. Cas1). We investigated the biological function of a gene with the M. ruber locus tag of Mrub_3013, which we hypothesize is a component of the CRISPR-Cas prokaryotic defense system in M. ruber. We predict that Mrub_3013 (DNA coordinates 3,053,978-3,054,940) encodes the protein Cas1 which as part of the CRISPR-Cas system, selects and cuts the foreign …
Mrub_3020, A Paralog Of Mrub_1489, Is Orthologous To E. Coli Casc (Locus Tag B2761), Alfred Dei-Ampeh, Dr. Lori Scott
Mrub_3020, A Paralog Of Mrub_1489, Is Orthologous To E. Coli Casc (Locus Tag B2761), Alfred Dei-Ampeh, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the biological functions of two genes: mrub_3020 and mrub_1489. We make two hypotheses in this investigation: a) mrub_3020 is orthologous to the gene b2761 in E. coli K12 MG1655 (a.k.a. casC); b) mrub_1489 is a paralog of mrub_3020. We also predict that the two genes encode unique proteins: mrub_3020 with DNA coordinates 3060491…3063190 encodes a CRISPR – associated helicase (Cas3) that supports the Cascade complex of the CRISPR – Cas adaptive immune system …
Effects Of Temperature On Crispr/Cas System, Eddie Beckom, Dr. Lori Scott
Effects Of Temperature On Crispr/Cas System, Eddie Beckom, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the effect of temperature on the complexity of CRISPR/Cas systems in bacterial organisms across temperature classifications. We predict that temperature extremes would result in CRISPR/Cas systems with multiple operons, repeating cas genes, and complex systems. CRISPR/Cas systems can be classified into three types with a number of subtypes based on the CRISPR-associated genes, cas genes, present in a given organism. Our hypothesis is supported by the presence of multiple operons in thermophilic organisms based on …
An Investigation Into The Relationship Between Mrub_3013, Mrub_1477, And Mrub_0224: Are They Paralogs?, Melette Devore, Dr. Lori Scott
An Investigation Into The Relationship Between Mrub_3013, Mrub_1477, And Mrub_0224: Are They Paralogs?, Melette Devore, Dr. Lori Scott
Meiothermus ruber Genome Analysis Project
This project is part of the Meiothermus ruber genome analysis project, which uses a collection of online bioinformatics tools to predict gene function. We investigated the biological function of mrub_3013 and the nature of its relationship with mrub_1477 and mrub_0224. We hypothesized that mrub_3013 is orthologous to b2755 in E. coli K12 MG1655 (a.k.a. cas1). We predict that mrub_3013 encodes the enzyme Cas1, which is involved in spacer acquisition in the CRISPR-Cas prokaryotic defense system. Our hypothesis is supported by identical hits for b2755, mrub_3013, mrub_1477, and mrub_0224 from the CDD and Pfam databases and highly similar hits from …
Smoking Cessation Treatments Varenicline (Chantix®️), Nrts, And Nicotine Dependence, Marley Vea Devoss
Smoking Cessation Treatments Varenicline (Chantix®️), Nrts, And Nicotine Dependence, Marley Vea Devoss
Biology: Student Scholarship & Creative Works
Varenicline was approved in 2006 by the FDA as an effective smoking cessation drug. Varenicline was designed to bind with α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) to work as both an agonist and antagonist. Other drugs like nicotine replacement therapies (NRTs) have also contributed to the decreasing rate of active smokers in the United States. The mechanisms of varenicline and its role in addiction are reviewed in this paper. With NRTs and recent trends in electronic smoking devices, nicotine dependence is still a cause for concern due to studies connecting nicotine with cell proliferation and heart disease.