Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Business Commons

Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®

Articles 1 - 30 of 61

Full-Text Articles in Business

Influencers Of Resident Attitudes Towards Tourism: The Shortfall In Our Assessment Methods, Christopher S. Dutt Feb 2024

Influencers Of Resident Attitudes Towards Tourism: The Shortfall In Our Assessment Methods, Christopher S. Dutt

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The study of residents’ perceptions and attitudes towards tourism has received considerable interest over the years. While much agreement has been found, there are also several areas of disagreement and noteworthy gaps that affect our understanding of residents’ attitudes toward tourism. This discussion reviews some of the existing findings of past studies, before considering some of the significant gaps. These include the dominance of social exchange theory (SET) as the principal model, the lack of distinction between tourists and tourism, and the impact of tourist typologies on perceptions of tourism.


Tourist Engagement Model Of Regenerative Tourism Destinations: A Case Study Of Egon Buluk Tourism Village, Sikka Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Michael Rudolfus Sawu, Muhammad Ridla Feb 2024

Tourist Engagement Model Of Regenerative Tourism Destinations: A Case Study Of Egon Buluk Tourism Village, Sikka Regency, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Michael Rudolfus Sawu, Muhammad Ridla

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The research aims to analyze regenerative tourism components products, tourists’ perceptions, tourists’ experiences, and regenerative tourism development policies while involving tourists as co-creators. The research utilizes a qualitative method with a phenomenological approach. In-depth interviews were conducted with 27 stakeholders related to the tourist engagement model in the development of tourism destinations at the village scale. This research found that the development of regenerative tourism product components showcases uniqueness and beauty on a massive scale due to being situated in conservation areas. However, there is a need for improvement in other components to provide a sense of safety, comfort, and …


Doing Business And Contributing To Conflict Prevention And Development In Ghana, Abdul Karim Issifu, Musa Essuman, Felix Dade Sep 2023

Doing Business And Contributing To Conflict Prevention And Development In Ghana, Abdul Karim Issifu, Musa Essuman, Felix Dade

Journal of Global Business Insights

While some scholars argue that companies implement corporate social responsibility (CSR) for altruistic reasons, to gain an advantage over rivals in the industry, to enhance corporate reputation, and to be seen as ethical for addressing environmental and socio-economic difficulties, other scholars view CSR as unnecessary. These scholars argue that CSR initiatives adversely affect corporate profits. The understanding of this phenomenon remains incomplete, especially with the lack of empirical understanding about why corporate bodies execute CSR in spite of their primary goal of maximizing profits. To better understand this gap in knowledge, this case study of the Newmont Ghana Gold Limited …


The Impact Of Globalization On Domestic Growth In Africa, Thomas L. Ainscough, Todd M. Shank Sep 2023

The Impact Of Globalization On Domestic Growth In Africa, Thomas L. Ainscough, Todd M. Shank

Journal of Global Business Insights

Research into the impacts of globalization on domestic growth in Africa has been scarce and the results of the research that does exist have been mixed. This research addresses this gap in the literature by using the newly revised KOF Globalization Index to determine the impact of social, political, and financial globalization on African economies. The KOF Index was revised substantially in 2019. Our full data set includes 40 years of data, from 1980-2019. Findings indicate that the relationship between globalization and GDP is best represented by a non-linear cubic model. With that model, social globalization has become Africa’s most …


Restrictions Are Lifted: The Effect Of Risk Perception Of Covid-19 On Future Travel Intentions Of Dutch Travellers, Rami K. Isaac Aug 2023

Restrictions Are Lifted: The Effect Of Risk Perception Of Covid-19 On Future Travel Intentions Of Dutch Travellers, Rami K. Isaac

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

This study aims to understand better the psychological impact of COVID-19, the risk perception, travel and destination risks of Dutch travellers and their intention to travel when travel restrictions due to COVID-19 are lifted. This study takes a step toward closing the gap in the literature as it provides new insights into the risk perceptions regarding COVID-19 and the travel intentions of Dutch travellers now that travel restrictions are lifted. This study employed a quantitative approach to market research. Questionnaire research was applied. The questionnaire is created with the web-based survey tool Qualtrics. 343 respondents filled in the questionnaire. The …


Editorial: Navigating Hospitality's Diverse Horizons, Faizan Ali Aug 2023

Editorial: Navigating Hospitality's Diverse Horizons, Faizan Ali

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

In the ever-evolving landscape of global hospitality and tourism, the second issue of Volume 2 of the Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism embarks on an intellectual journey to explore pressing matters at the intersection of travel, management, culture, and inclusivity. This issue, encompassing a rich array of research papers and viewpoints, delves into multifaceted themes that resonate with the multifarious dimensions of our industry.


Impact Of Management Polyphony In Family Business: A Review, Ali S. Cetinkaya, Serife Sogancioglu Aug 2023

Impact Of Management Polyphony In Family Business: A Review, Ali S. Cetinkaya, Serife Sogancioglu

University of South Florida (USF) M3 Publishing

The link between family and family-owned enterprise has persisted for generations within the framework of family, ownership, management, and business. Family-owned companies are created in order to generate revenue and preserve the family's tradition. With the proper management strategy, family businesses can survive and be passed down to future generations. In family businesses, the founders and family member managers are the only ones who carry out main management tasks including planning, organizing, coordinating, leading, supervising, and controlling. Management polyphony can happen in a family-owned firm when more than one family member is designated as the manager. Although managerial polyphony may …


Decisive Determinants Shaping Nomadic Tourism Future Development: The Case Of Shahsavan Tribes In Iran, Vali Nemati, Sarasadat Makian, Farid Hanifezadeh, Amir Hossein Qezelbash Aug 2023

Decisive Determinants Shaping Nomadic Tourism Future Development: The Case Of Shahsavan Tribes In Iran, Vali Nemati, Sarasadat Makian, Farid Hanifezadeh, Amir Hossein Qezelbash

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

Nomadic livelihood is one of the earliest human ways of life, still practiced in some parts of the world. Since adventurous tourists are looking for new experiences, nomadic tourism in the postmodern era is gaining attention, considering nomads’ unique lifestyles, customs, clothing, and other cultural features. Consequently, countries with nomads can diversify their tourism industry and the local economy in the future. However, Iran's nomadic community is experiencing unfavorable living conditions and insufficient financial resources, necessitating a shift in nomadic livelihood patterns. This study aims to identify and prioritize the factors that influence the development of nomadic tourism as a …


Race And Ethnicity In Hospitality Management: A Review Of Five Major Journals, Shaniel Bernard, Alana Dillette, Stefanie Benjamin Aug 2023

Race And Ethnicity In Hospitality Management: A Review Of Five Major Journals, Shaniel Bernard, Alana Dillette, Stefanie Benjamin

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

Given the large representation of racial and ethnic minorities in the hospitality industry, it is important to understand how race and ethnicity are studied in major hospitality journals, especially due to their influence in informing research fundamental to scientific progress in the hospitality field. Informed by critical theory, this study systematically reviews the evolution of research on race and ethnicity in the top hospitality journals to highlight the possibility of hospitality management research taking a more critical turn to expose potent racial and ethnic counternarratives to the traditional broad scope of diversity management. Three themes emerged from the analysis covering …


Inclusive Journeys: Unveiling The Imperative Of Accessible Tourism For People With Disabilities, Faizan Ali Aug 2023

Inclusive Journeys: Unveiling The Imperative Of Accessible Tourism For People With Disabilities, Faizan Ali

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

This viewpoint delves into accessible tourism, highlighting its significance in the contemporary travel landscape. With a particular focus on disabled tourists, this piece elucidates their challenges during their journeys and advocates for a comprehensive understanding of their unique needs. The discourse emphasizes the long-overlooked nature of this segment and underscores the crucial reasons for studying and prioritizing accessible tourism. Drawing on existing literature and perspectives, the viewpoint concludes by presenting thought-provoking research questions to advance the discourse surrounding accessible tourism.


Adapting To A Renewed Collective Culture Through A Change In Organizational Behavior, Peter Bheda Aug 2023

Adapting To A Renewed Collective Culture Through A Change In Organizational Behavior, Peter Bheda

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The dynamic interplay between organizational behavior and cultural transformation is paramount in the ever-evolving landscape of hospitality leadership. As the hospitality industry adapts to post-pandemic shifts, executives grapple with managing successful companies while ensuring effective employee engagement. While profitability surged for many, managing employees remains a complex challenge. Cultivating a thriving culture is a critical solution. Toxic cultures incur tangible and intangible costs, impacting revenues, employee retention, and productivity. The pandemic has underscored the urgency of cultural alignment, prompting leaders to rethink behavior patterns. Engaging leaders across hierarchies as "chief culture officers" promotes accountability, openness, alignment, and leverage, fostering a …


Determinants Of Food Waste: Tpb And Moderating Impact Of Demographics & Guilt, M Mansha Tahir Aug 2023

Determinants Of Food Waste: Tpb And Moderating Impact Of Demographics & Guilt, M Mansha Tahir

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

Increase in number of people dining out significantly contributes to food waste in restaurants. It is crucial to understand the determinants of food waste. Such determinants are influenced by demographics as well as emotional factors. The present study is meant to understand such factors through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Participants’ intentions are influenced by guilt and this study was conducted to examine the moderating role of guilt. Hypotheses were tested with analysis of data collected from 423 participants. Constructs of extended model were analyzed with AMOS (V.21) for structural equation modeling whereas moderations were tested …


Wellness In The Hospitality Industry - Guests Vs. Employees, Natalia Levey Feb 2023

Wellness In The Hospitality Industry - Guests Vs. Employees, Natalia Levey

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The wellness tourism market is showing exponential growth and potential, the need for human resources is also growing. This causes a human resources challenge and opportunity to address and leaves the question: Can everyone ultimately benefit from a thoughtfully created environment that not only takes care of guests, but where does this leave the employees providing the services? As such, this opinion paper tackles the aforementioned question and provides some insights, leading to further research questions.


Assessing The Application Of 𝛽-Weights And Structure Coefficients In Published Hospitality And Tourism Research, Millicent Njeri, Jeff Allen, Garrett Jennings Feb 2023

Assessing The Application Of 𝛽-Weights And Structure Coefficients In Published Hospitality And Tourism Research, Millicent Njeri, Jeff Allen, Garrett Jennings

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

Multiple regression is one of the most powerful analysis techniques available to hospitality and tourism researchers for complex problems that may include prediction, mediation, and moderation. The interpretation of the results requires a two-step hierarchical approach. The first step is to determine whether the researcher has findings worth interpreting and reporting and the second step is to determine the effect(s) origins. This second step involves evaluating both the 𝛽-weights and structure coefficients. The purpose of this study is to examine the use of 𝛽-weights and structure coefficients while reporting univariate multiple regression results by hospitality and tourism researchers. …


Editorial, Faizan Ali Jan 2023

Editorial, Faizan Ali

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

I am pleased to present the third issue of Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism (JGHT), Volume 2, Issue 1. This issue focuses on ensuring the journal’s scope and strengthening its position in both conceptual developments and practical applications in global hospitality and tourism through publication of five quality manuscripts and 2 academic viewpoints: five full papers that underwent rigorous double-blind reviewing, an academic viewpoint, and an industry viewpoint. The present issue of JGHT contains five full papers, written by fourteen authors located in four different countries and affiliated with eight different universities.


How Airline Managers Assess Their Competitive Positions: A Case Study In Turkey, Huseyin O. Aldemir, Ferhan K. Sengur Sep 2022

How Airline Managers Assess Their Competitive Positions: A Case Study In Turkey, Huseyin O. Aldemir, Ferhan K. Sengur

Journal of Global Business Insights

This study focused on how airline managers perceive their competitive positions. Based on the perceptions of the airline managers, strengths-weaknesses-opportunities-threats (SWOT) analyses were carried out. All scheduled and unscheduled passenger carriers in Turkey were used as sample for this research. The data were acquired through qualitative research by semi-structured interviews with senior executives of the airlines. This research demonstrated how airline managers assess their competitive positions in the market. The similarities and differences related to each airlines’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats were put forward. Interviews among managers of the airline companies operating in Turkey revealed varied perceptions on business …


A Heuristic Outlook On The Occupational Accidents Of Food & Beverage Staff In Hotels, Gulsah Akkus, Aytug Arslan, Merve Iscen, Burcu Isik Sep 2022

A Heuristic Outlook On The Occupational Accidents Of Food & Beverage Staff In Hotels, Gulsah Akkus, Aytug Arslan, Merve Iscen, Burcu Isik

Journal of Global Business Insights

The labor-intensive structure, 24/7 service availability, diversity of departments including kitchens, housekeeping, and technical services, the high labor turnover ratios, along with the long working hours and shift systems inherent in accommodation establishments all play a role in the occurrence of occupational accidents (OA). Fundamental reasons underlying OA are unsafe behavior and unsafe working conditions. This study analyzes with a qualitative method the OA that occur in the food & beverage (F&B) service department of accommodation establishments from the viewpoint of employees. The study concludes that the majority of these accidents are not high risk, and generally result from unsafe …


Analysis Of International Hotels’ Social Media Strategies, Gökhan Şener, Cihan Cobanoglu Aug 2022

Analysis Of International Hotels’ Social Media Strategies, Gökhan Şener, Cihan Cobanoglu

Journal of Mediterranean Tourism Research

The hospitality industry and customer behaviors are unceasingly due to technology. Social media is thoroughly used by many people globally today and is a primary digital form of communication that includes these developments regarding hospitality, which is discernible in the most recent way. Eminently, it is being browsed for recreation, providing notable information and promotion for businesses. Social media generates outstanding opportunities for corporations to run critical digital marketing strategies. One of the essential considerations of enterprises is to grow their sales volumes, and advertising on digital platforms is a much more operative approach than any other platform nowadays, so …


The Economics Of Technology In Travel, Tourism, And Hospitality, Stanislav Ivanov Aug 2022

The Economics Of Technology In Travel, Tourism, And Hospitality, Stanislav Ivanov

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The first is an academic viewpoint, written by Prof. Stanislav Ivanov from Varna University of Management. He suggests academic research accepts and pays more attention to the economics of technologies in travel, tourism, and hospitality. According to Ivanov, travel, tourism, and hospitality (TTH) are intrinsically connected to technology. At the same time, tourists book their flights and accommodation through technology, reach their destination with the help of technology, explore the destination with technology, and share their experiences online with technology. Economic principles, like any other business, run them. Economic factors also drive their decisions to invest in technology. That is …


The Role Of Management Organizations And Local Governments In Destination Marketing: The Case Of Turkey Tourism Promotion And Development Agency (Tga), Murat Toktaş Aug 2022

The Role Of Management Organizations And Local Governments In Destination Marketing: The Case Of Turkey Tourism Promotion And Development Agency (Tga), Murat Toktaş

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

The second viewpoint is industry-focused and is authored by Mr. Murat Toktaş. He is the founder/president of KATID (Black Sea Tourist Operators Association), the founder/president of SKAL Karadeniz, and the founder/vice-president of TUROYD (Tourism Hotel Managers Association) and a member of the Board of Directors of TUROFED (Turkish Hoteliers Federation). In his viewpoint, he explains how destination management organizations (DMOs) work with local governments in Turkey. He suggested a successful destination marketing strategy for the Turkish Tourism Promotion and Development Agency (TGA). Collaboration between local and DMOs is essential for destinations to be adequately promoted and become a successful brands. …


Covid-19 And Hospitality Services: The Role Of Information Sources, Believability, Fear, And Behavioral Intentions, Shaniel Bernard, Imran Rahman, Sijun Liu, Luana Nanu Aug 2022

Covid-19 And Hospitality Services: The Role Of Information Sources, Believability, Fear, And Behavioral Intentions, Shaniel Bernard, Imran Rahman, Sijun Liu, Luana Nanu

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

Based on the Social Amplification of Risk Framework (SARF) and crisis decision theory, this study examined the influence of trust in different types of information sources on the believability of COVID-19 information (BCI). Furthermore, the influence of BCI on fearfulness and the corresponding influence of fearfulness on the intention to use hospitality services and stay at home are analyzed. Structural equations modeling, using data from 1,017 American consumers, successfully confirmed the significant influences of trust in media and government on BCI and the corresponding positive effect of BCI on fearfulness. Additionally, the negative effects of fearfulness on intentions to visit …


Re-Architecting The Firm For Increased Value: How Business Models Are Adapting To The New Ai Environment, Gozde Turktarhan, David S. Aleong, Chandra Aleong Mar 2022

Re-Architecting The Firm For Increased Value: How Business Models Are Adapting To The New Ai Environment, Gozde Turktarhan, David S. Aleong, Chandra Aleong

Journal of Global Business Insights

This paper is an examination of how technology, specifically artificial intelligence (AI), brings about changes in business models, with corresponding impacts on the fields of economics and business. Concepts such as value creation and competitive advantage have cascading effects on organizational culture and the functional framework of a firm. Data creation, management, and curation using media platforms enable enhanced scalability and logistics management such that the firm can be re-architected around a digital core. Organizational structure with functions such as marketing and human resource management are integral links in the automated value network anticipating and responding to customers’ needs while …


Co-Occurrence Network Analysis (Cna) As An Alternative Tool To Assess Survey-Based Research Models In Hospitality And Tourism Research, Mehmet A. Koseoglu, John A. Parnell, Hasan E. Arici Mar 2022

Co-Occurrence Network Analysis (Cna) As An Alternative Tool To Assess Survey-Based Research Models In Hospitality And Tourism Research, Mehmet A. Koseoglu, John A. Parnell, Hasan E. Arici

Journal of Global Business Insights

Hospitality and tourism (H&T) researchers employ structural equation modeling (SEM) and other multivariate techniques to test their models with survey data. These approaches assess relationships among constructs and model fit, but they do not highlight the most influential survey items or links among them. Other challenges include method-specific requirements for appropriate data, the best indices to identify optimal models, minimum sample sizes, missing data, and interpreting the results from complex models. Co-occurrence network analysis (CNA) can mitigate these limitations. This study validates CNA in the H&T field with a survey dataset that assesses market strategy, nonmarket strategy (NMS), organizational values, …


A User-Generated Content Analysis On The Quality Of Restaurants Using The Tourqual Model, Tiago S. Mondo, Andre R. C. Perinotto, Valerio Souza-Neto Mar 2022

A User-Generated Content Analysis On The Quality Of Restaurants Using The Tourqual Model, Tiago S. Mondo, Andre R. C. Perinotto, Valerio Souza-Neto

Journal of Global Business Insights

The restaurant market is becoming more competitive, and businesses are challenged to differentiate themselves in this sector in terms of quality of services. This research aimed to identify the specific indicators for measuring the quality of restaurant service in Brazil. Based on a quantitative paradigm, we adopted a user-generated content analysis with a sample of 1,143,631 customer reviews from 35,611 restaurants in seven Brazilian cities available on the TripAdvisor platform. We collected and registered the data in text and analyzed the results with the support of T-LAB software. Moreover, we adopted TOURQUAL Protocol (Mondo, 2014) to identify the main requirements …


Strategic Event Planning In Hospitality: The Need To Recommit, Post Covid, Nancy Hutson Feb 2022

Strategic Event Planning In Hospitality: The Need To Recommit, Post Covid, Nancy Hutson

Journal of Global Hospitality and Tourism

This viewpoint suggests that recharging the hospitality industry in post-pandemic world is a critical issue. The author discusses several steps towards having a strategic event plan in place within hospitality establishments, that can strive to regain, and potentially surpass, pre-Covid attendance and profits. These steps include (1) understanding who the guest currently is and who we want to encourage for further visits, (2) knowing the current market and what events might stimulate the attendance, and (3) identifying when an event is needed to boost visitation and profitability. The author also puts forward several research questions throughout the viewpoint.


The Perceived Impact Of Covid-19 Pandemic On Healthcare Cost In Bangladesh, Hasibul Islam, Fatema Johora, Asma A. Abbasy, Masud Rana, Niyungeko Antoine Sep 2021

The Perceived Impact Of Covid-19 Pandemic On Healthcare Cost In Bangladesh, Hasibul Islam, Fatema Johora, Asma A. Abbasy, Masud Rana, Niyungeko Antoine

Journal of Global Business Insights

The study showed the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on healthcare expenses including the price of medicines, protective equipment, medical devices, healthcare facilities, and food. A self-administered questionnaire was used as the data collection tool and 400 people from different Bangladesh divisions (Dhaka, Chittagong, Barisal, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, and Sylhet) participated in this study. Multiple regression analysis was used to estimate the impact of independent variables on dependent variables. R programming environment was used to perform the statistical analysis. Cronbach’s alpha was used for determination of reliability and found acceptable internal consistency. The price of protective equipment (POPE), the price …


The Effect Of Destructive Leadership On Self-Efficacy And Counterproductive Work Behaviors: A Research On Service Sector Employees In Mersin, Turkey, Murat Aydinay, Aysehan Cakici, A. Celil Cakici Sep 2021

The Effect Of Destructive Leadership On Self-Efficacy And Counterproductive Work Behaviors: A Research On Service Sector Employees In Mersin, Turkey, Murat Aydinay, Aysehan Cakici, A. Celil Cakici

Journal of Global Business Insights

The aim of this study was to find out the effect of destructive leadership on employees’ self-efficacy and counterproductive work behaviors. The data was collected from a convenience sample of 486 service sector employees in Mersin, Turkey. Descriptive statistics, explanatory factor analysis, and regression analysis were conducted to analyze the data. The results showed that lack of competence in leadership, excessive authoritarianism, and favoritism dimensions increased the organization-oriented counterproductive work behaviors while resistance to technology and change dimension decreased these behaviors. In contrast, insensitivity to subordinates had no effect on counterproductive work behaviors. Furthermore, destructive leadership had no effect on …


Toxicity In Organizations: A Sample Study On The Perceived Toxicity In Turkish Academicians, Mustafa H. Atasoy, Muhsin Halis Aug 2021

Toxicity In Organizations: A Sample Study On The Perceived Toxicity In Turkish Academicians, Mustafa H. Atasoy, Muhsin Halis

University of South Florida (USF) M3 Publishing

The management styles of the organizations and therefore the managers are undoubtedly an important issue for employees. The behavior of both a high-level manager and top managers affects the sense, mood, and behavior of subordinates. For a long time, leadership research has concentrated too much on perfect, romantic, and “good” forms of leadership, but neglected the aggressive part: the toxic leadership. When the bad management is mentioned, the first thing that comes to mind is a bad manager. Poor management, bad leadership, or dark side of leadership is also referred to as the "toxic leadership" in the literature. In this …


Which Resources Are Matter To Healthcare Performance? A Case Study On Bahrain, Mahmood A. Ali, Mohamed S. A. Elseoud Aug 2021

Which Resources Are Matter To Healthcare Performance? A Case Study On Bahrain, Mahmood A. Ali, Mohamed S. A. Elseoud

University of South Florida (USF) M3 Publishing

The study aims at measuring the Bahrain public hospitals' healthcare services quality. For this purpose, the study adopts quantitative and survey techniques through designing survey questionnaire based on the five quality dimensions of SERVQUAL model which are: Tangibles, Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance and Empathy. A questionnaire distributed electronically among citizens and residents, by using the social media network. A total of 169 responses were collected. The responses were estimated and analyzed via correlations and multiple regression techniques. The main findings show that, there is a significant influence of health care service quality on overall patient, in addition to, there are no …


Corporate Parenting Advantage: Conceptual, Methodological, And Empirical Considerations, Pairoj Piyawongwathana, Sak Onkvisit Mar 2021

Corporate Parenting Advantage: Conceptual, Methodological, And Empirical Considerations, Pairoj Piyawongwathana, Sak Onkvisit

Journal of Global Business Insights

The pioneering work of Campbell et al. (1995a) presented four ways a corporate parent either creates or destroys value for the companies it owns. They are (a) stand alone, (b) linkage, (c) central functions and services, and (d) corporate development. Despite widespread acceptance of the concept of parenting advantage, empirical research remains scarce. Examining the methodological issues, this research describes the development of an instrument to measure the four strategies. An exploratory factor analysis yielded six distinct factors, accounting for 74.11% of the variance. The results partially validated the a priori classification scheme. A few factors partly reflected the measurement …