Digital Commons Network^™

Navigating Nil In Collegiate Athletics: Athletes, Institutional, And Market Perspectives, Don Lee, Hoyeol Yu, Myungwoo Lee, Minseok Cho

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

This study examines the post-2021 NCAA Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) era by synthesizing scholarship on how NIL policies have transformed collegiate athletics. Specifically, it explores the regulatory, economic, governance, and equity dynamics emerging from a decentralized policy environment and the rapid expansion of athlete commercialization. An AI-assisted scoping review and content analysis were conducted on NIL-related studies published in leading sport management and sport law journals since July 1, 2021. Using large language model–supported searches, thematic coding, and reliability and validity procedures, the selected studies were systematically analyzed across legal, governance, commercialization, athlete experience, and equity dimensions. Findings identified …

The Impact Of Toxic Leadership On Intercollegiate Athletics: Gender-Differentiated Perceptions, Tara Tietjen-Smith, Haley Blount

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

While some investigative research has been conducted to examine the impact of toxic, or destructive, leadership in sport, few studies have focused on intercollegiate athletics departments. The purpose of this study was to examine how common toxic leadership is in intercollegiate athletics departments as well as its impact. A quantitative cross-sectional survey study was designed to examine NCAA Division I and II athletics employee experiences using the Toxic Triangle of Sport Management (TToSM) as a theoretical framework. Respondents (N = 2,051) were asked questions concerning their perceptions of work environments, leadership, and organizational culture procured from three distinct and well-established …

Online Harassment And Mental Health Among Collegiate Student-Athletes: Findings From An Ncaa Division I Conference Survey, M. Courtney Hughes, Michelle K. Demaray, Emily A. Skiba, Sarah E. Warriner

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

Social media is central to college athletics, yet public visibility can expose collegiate student-athletes to online harassment, a risk the NCAA has recently highlighted by documenting sizable volumes of abusive, discriminatory, and betting-related content directed at athletes and officials. This study surveyed 85 NCAA Division I student-athletes from ten universities across the Mid-American Conference and assessed social-media behaviors, online harassment exposure, depression, and anxiety. Most athletes used social media 1–3 hours/day, 78% enabled name-mention alerts, and platforms commonly used included Instagram (98.8%) and X (65.9%). Online harassment was reported via social posts (9.4%), direct messages (4.7%), and texts (3.5%), with …

Understanding Parents Perceptions Concerning Division I Student-Athlete Mental Health, Jonathan M. Casper, Jason Bocarro, Marie Amidon

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

Collegiate student-athletes (SAs) frequently underreport mental health concerns and are less likely to seek professional support compared to their non-athlete peers. Given the substantial emotional and academic support parents provide, this study examined NCAA Division I parents’ perceptions of their student-athletes’ mental health and overall well-being, as well as their awareness and perceptions of available mental health services. An online survey (N = 178) was administered across two Division I universities. Parents reported considerable concern regarding mental exhaustion, anxiety, academic pressures, and future planning. They also identified sport-specific stressors, including relationships with coaches, playing time, team dynamics, and injuries. Although …

Rewriting The Playbook: The X’S And O’S Of The House Settlement And The Future Of Student-Athletes’ Voice In Their Compensation, Matthew K.V. Glazer

Seattle University Law Review

Since the formation of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in the 1900s, collegiate athletes (student-athletes) have been prohibited from using their own name, image and likeness (NIL) for profit. But on July 1, 2021, the NCAA changed course and began allowing student-athletes to profit from their own NIL. In the past few years, U.S. college athletics have undergone significant changes, most notably introducing monetary compensation for student-athletes’ NIL. While these changes were long overdue and ultimately beneficial, they have significantly disrupted the landscape of college sports, giving rise to numerous challenges that some experts have compared to the “Wild …

Student-Athlete Flourishing In Intercollegiate Athletics: A Mixed Methods Study, James Hines

UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones

Comprehending the complexities associated with student-athlete well-being while competing on campus is important for both institutions of higher education and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Studies relating to student-athlete well-being have researched many different areas such as suicide prevention (Gross et al., 2020), mental health treatments (Ryan et al.,2018), and injury recovery (Martin et al., 2021). Few studies have examined student-athlete flourishing which focuses on helping individuals thrive and reach their greatest potential. This study employs an explanatory sequential mixed method design to examine student-athlete flourishing along with factors associated with student-athlete flourishing. Survey data (N=89) provided insight on …

From Amateur To Influencer: The Nil Era Takes Over, Olivia J. Matulich

Honors Theses

This thesis examines the change of amateur athletics with the rise of Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) rights. For many years, the NCAA followed an amateurism model that prevented student-athletes from earning money, even though their efforts generated major profits through media contracts, sponsorships, and branding. The arrival of NIL in 2021 marked a major shift, allowing athletes the chance to earn money from their personal brand, which redefined the role they play within the collegiate athletic system.

This study looks at NIL from several angles, including its legal background, financial impact, and cultural significance. By reviewing key legal cases …

Exploration Of Leadership Competencies In College Athletes: An Impact Of Student-Athlete Advisory Committee On Leadership Development, Karina Jolly, Alison Fridley, Jake Simms, Chris Corr, Sarah Stokowski

Journal of Applied Sport Management

The Student-Athlete Advisory Committee (SAAC) is designed to engage college athletes in decision-making processes that influence the NCAA and its member institutions. College athletes provide personal insight into the NCAA intercollegiate athletic experience, thereby influencing policy. SAAC participation prompts the application of transferable sport-specific skills such as leadership and work ethic in a professional setting. This study explores SAAC’s impact on the leadership competencies of college athletes. Results reveal that college athletes who participate in SAAC scored higher on three of the nine leadership factors examined. These findings highlight the importance of leadership programming tailored for college athletes, with SAAC …

Game Without A Voice: College Athletes’ Symbolic Participation In Institutional Decisions, Eric G. Kramer, Karina Jolly, Chris Corr, Sarah Stokowski

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

This study examined decision-making by student-athlete advisory committee (SAAC) members within a hegemonic characterization of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Findings revealed that athletes prioritized decisions with tangible, immediate impact – such as mental and physical health and peer support – over broader systemic issues like NCAA legislation. While athletes actively participated in select areas, their perceived influence remained low, particularly within athletic department policy decisions, where findings indicated the greatest gap between participation and desired influence. Such findings reflect a systemic power imbalance that limits athlete agency, reinforced by fears of retribution and structural exclusion from meaningful governance. …

College Football Free Agency: The Transactional Nature Of Big-Time College Football Recruiting, Chris Corr, Branden Johnson, Amanda L. Paule-Koba

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

This study explored how the transfer portal has transformed college football recruiting by disrupting traditional relationship-based practices and accelerating the shift toward a transactional performance-driven model. Drawing on Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus, field, and capital, the research examines how recruiting coordinators navigate evolving pressures around talent acquisition, NIL compensation, and compressed recruiting timelines. Findings from comprehensive interviews with five Power-4 recruiting personnel reveal that relationships are increasingly leveraged for short-term gain. The findings of this study indicate the transfer portal has created an opaque high-stakes marketplace where trust is limited, valuation is speculative, and institutional pedigree/resources heavily influence opportunities. The …

Ncaa Division Iii Athletes’ Perceptions Of Impactful Peer Leadership​, Gabriel Palacios, Andrea Eckermann, Justin Gooden, Caden Battenfield, Matthew Robinson, Kristen Mcalexander

International Journal of Exercise Science: Conference Proceedings

While sport leadership strongly influences team cohesion, motivation, and success, most research focuses on coaches rather than peer athletic leaders. PURPOSE: Explore common characteristics among peer athletic leaders and how they influence a team’s motivation and success. METHODS: In the Fall of 2025, modified questions from the Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS) and the Grit Scale-Original (GS-O), measuring leadership behaviors, leadership qualities, team dynamics, and the influence of peer leaders, were emailed to student athletes at a NCAA Division III University. RESULTS: Thirteen participants (M age= 20.15 years, SD=1.46 years) representing five sports (basketball N=8, cross country N=1, soccer N=1, …

Breaking The Huddle: Judicial Deference, Antitrust, And The Ncaas Path Forward, Zeke Stockton

Saint Louis University Law Journal

The University of Tennessee Men’s Basketball team entered Week Ten of the 2024–25 college basketball season ranked number one in the country. The Southeastern Conference’s leading scorer going into Tennessee’s game against Texas that week was Tennessee’s Chaz Lanier. On the first play of the second half, Lanier launched a pass into Tennessee’s bench instead of taking an open jump shot. Rick Barnes, Tennessee’s head coach and one of the winningest coaches in college basketball history, immediately took Lanier out of the game. Barnes said in the post-game press conference, “[t]hat play was designed for that shot. I told him, …

Oh Brother, Where Art Thou: Between Brotherhood And Belonging For Black Male Athletes In Predominantly White Ncaa Spaces, Candice L. Turner

Master's Theses and Doctoral Dissertations

This dissertation examines the college environment variables that significantly influence the academic and personal success of Black male student-athletes at predominantly White NCAA institutions. Grounded in a robust conceptual framework that integrates Astin's input–environment–outcome model, critical race theory, and resilience theory, this research seeks to identify the complex interplay between academic support, social integration, racial climate, and institutional policies on the retention, persistence, and overall well-being of Black male athletes. Recognizing the systemic and individual challenges that shape their collegiate experiences, this study adopts a quantitative case study approach, analyzing secondary data and exploring how factors such as faculty engagement, …

Relationships Win: Human Connection Outperforms Data In Collegiate Athletics, Chris Corr

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Advanced analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) occupy an increasing position and function within the institutional setting of collegiate athletics. At both the departmental and programmatic levels, collegiate athletic stakeholders have consistently increased their reliance on AI and data within decision-making processes and strategic development. Given its importance to competitive success, AI interfaces such as machine-based learning, predictive analysis, and natural language processing has been increasingly integrated within the recruiting process of prospective and transfer athletes. However, while such reliance on data-driven strategies and predictive analytics hold competitive value within the talent identification and evaluation process, the relational role of the …

Analysis Of Careers In And Through Intercollegiate Compliance, Michael A. Odio, Grace Wright, Thomas J. Aicher

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

This study examines job movements entering, exiting, and between NCAA compliance-related positions using a sample of 100 LinkedIn profiles. The analysis of the 441 job movements establishes job and organizational tenure figures and patterns in how people matriculate through certain positions. Theory related to career boundaries is used to interpret the job movements and draw conclusions about patterns related to educational backgrounds (e.g., master’s and law degrees), the role of internships and graduate assistantships, and more. The findings provide new insight on career dynamics in NCAA compliance and underscore the need to focus on studying subsectors in college sport to …

The Impact Of Geographic And Community Diversity On The Transitionary Experiences Of International College Athletes, Marek Taškár, Chris Corr, Nicole Sellars, Sarah Stokowski, Karina Jolly, Trevor Bopp

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

International college athletes migrating to the United States for athletic competition encounter unique challenges such as language barriers, cultural adjustment, and familial detachment. These obstacles can hinder international college athletes’ transition compared to those of domestic athletes. While supportive programming and personnel have been illustrated to ease the transition and foster acculturation among international college athletes, the impact of the geographic location of an institution may impact the acculturation process for international college athletes. Given the importance of acculturation to athletic and academic success, this study examined how cultural diversity within communities hosting NCAA member institutions affects international college athletes’ …

Athletic Coaches’ Perspective: The Intersection Of Female Collegiate Athletic Involvement, Emotional Health, And Academic Performance, Kimba P. Jackson

Student Theses and Dissertations

This study examined the mental health challenges faced by female Division I collegiate athletes. The problem addressed was the issue of poor psychological health among Division I female collegiate athletes. The pressures faced by this subpopulation can lead to psychological distress, which may manifest as anxiety, depression, and role conflict. Consequently, female athletes encounter unique challenges that can adversely affect their overall well-being and performance in athletics and academics. This research aimed to investigate the influence of collegiate athletic participation on female athletes' mental health, particularly from the perspective of coaches, who play a vital role in shaping their athletes' …

How Name, Image, And Likeness Has Affected Ncaa Legislation, Lauren Versteeg

Honors Thesis

This paper analyzes the impact that name, image, and likeness (NIL) has affected the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) legislation. To answer this question, I reviewed the NCAA’s website on their legislative body and rules that related to financial compensation. I also analyzed court cases about NIL that were brought against the NCAA. What I found was that NIL has been a short and recent change to the NCAA’s operations, but it has been an impactful one nonetheless. Over recent years, the legislation for NCAA has changed in order to accommodate athletes’ name, image, and likeness. A distinct outlook from …

Can You Slow Down A Ticking Clock? An Examination Of The Predictors Of Workaholism And How Each Influences A Correlation Between Workaholism And The Work-Life Balance Of Ncaa Division I Coaches, Brooke Elizabeth Yerger

Doctoral Dissertations and Projects

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) is one of the largest companies in the world. It is responsible for generating millions of dollars through various sporting events, including the College World Series, the College Football Playoffs, and March Madness. However, this industry is prone to high stress levels, workaholism, and poor work-life balance among the coaches employed by NCAA institutions. Lower work-life balance levels can result in poor overall well-being. These coaches are responsible not only for themselves and their families, but also for the many student-athletes they interact with. If they are not satisfied, their ability to interact positively …

“I Didn't Come Here To Make Money”: Exploring Power 4 Athletes’ Perceptions Of Exploitation, Sarah Stokowski, Chris Corr, Kaleigh Smith, Elijah Toney, Emma Kate Bostick, Eileen Russell, Brooke Prince, Michael Godfrey

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

While it is widely noted that athletes competing in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletics are exploited in a variety of ways, scholarly examinations of college athlete exploitation have rarely sought to engage athletes themselves. Accordingly, researchers conducted in-depth, detailed, semi-structured interviews with college athletes currently competing in Power 4 conferences to uncover their perceptions of exploitation based on their lived experiences. Ten athletes representing five distinct sports (baseball, football, gymnastics, softball, and track and field) competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference, Big Ten Conference, and Southeastern Conference agreed to participate in the study. Findings indicate the characteristics of participants’ …

Ncaa Student-Athletes' Sports Gambling Behaviors Examined Using Psychological Reactance Theory, Braden E. Norris, Paul M. Pedersen

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

Since the repeal of the Pro and Amateur Sports Protection Act (PASPA) in 2018, sports gambling has been a rapidly growing segment of the sport world. The United States federal government has left it up to individual states to legalize and govern the activity of sports gambling, however, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) still prohibits (Bylaw 10.3) the activity regardless of legality. With it known that student-athletes violate Bylaw 10.3 (e.g., Paskus & Derevensky, 2025; Richard et al., 2019), this study examined sports gambling behaviors through under the scope of Psychological Reactance Theory (PRT) to investigate if student-athletes’ sports …

Position Utilization And Leadership Of Senior Woman Administrators In The Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference, Mattie J. Schimenz

Leadership Education Capstones

This study investigates the utilization and impact of the Senior Woman Administrator (SWA) position within the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference (NSIC), focusing on job satisfaction and career confidence. Historically, women led collegiate women’s sports, but with the consolidation of men’s and women’s athletics under a single governance structure, female representation in leadership declined. While women make up 44% of NCAA athletes, only 27.2% of athletic directors are women (Statista, n.d.). The SWA role was created to ensure women have a voice in athletic department decision-making. This mixed-methods study explores whether the SWA role is fulfilling its original purpose of promoting …

Does Name, Image, And Likeness Increase Gender Inequality In College Athletics?, Aimee Christenson

Political Science Theses and Capstones

In June of 2021, the National Collegiate Athletic Association adopted its first interim policy regarding Name, Image, and Likeness. From here, college athletes have been able to benefit from opportunities regarding their brand as an athlete. While this development has been historic in its expansion of rights to athletes, it highlights the inequities between male and female athletes. Title IX requires equal opportunity for male and female students. This research raises questions about whether NIL is increasing the disparity between male and female athletes. To answer this question, I looked at NIL data collected by Kyle Ems on the NIL …

High Performance International Student-Athletes’ (Isas’) Career Experience: Cultural Intelligence (Cq) And Transition To Sec Schools, Tsu-Lin Yeh, Mark S. Nagel, Allison Anders, Stephen Shapiro

Journal of Athlete Development and Experience

Given the increasing recruitment of International Student Athletes (ISAs) in the US, this study investigated high-performance international athletes’ career transitions in Southeastern Conference (SEC) schools. Utilizing Cultural Intelligence (CQ) theory, which explains a person’s capability for performing well in culturally diverse environments (Fang et al., 2018), this study specifically examined how the four CQ elements (metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behavior) impacted ISA’s transitions. Using criterion-based sampling and snowball sampling, a total of 14 ISAs (five females and nine males) were interviewed. The four CQ elements were utilized as protocol coding for analyzing the interview manuscripts (Saldaña, 2016). Facing new/different cultural …

Collegiate Athlete Branding And Name, Image, And Likeness On Instagram, Carson Shaw, Renu Pariyadath

University of South Carolina Upstate Student Research Journal

This study explores how collegiate athletes use Instagram to build their personal brands and maximize their Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) potential in the era of digital self-promotion. Since the 2021 Supreme Court ruling allowing college athletes to profit from NIL, social media has become a key platform for visibility, engagement, and financial opportunity. Guided by Erving Goffman’s Self-Presentation Theory, this research employs a qualitative content analysis of 80 Instagram posts from eight collegiate athletes—four high-profile and four low-profile—representing diverse sports, genders, and institutions. Sixteen content themes drawn from prior research were analyzed, including personal life, business life, athletic performance, …

“I Know More About What We Can’T Do Than What We Can”: Division I Women’S Sports Athletes’ Perceptions Of Name, Image, And Likeness, Jalyn Jimerson, Courtney Jones, Quinn Lukens, Marina Miller, Sarah Stokowski, Michael Godfrey, Trevor Bopp, Chris Corr

The COSMA Journal

This study investigated women’s sport athletes’ perceptions of their ability to profit off name, image, and likeness (NIL) as current participants in collegiate athletics. Researchers conducted comprehensive semi-structured interviews with eight women’s sport athletes representing four NCAA Division I member institutions. Participants explained how institutionally organized programmatic educational initiatives primarily codified impermissible forms of NIL compensation while often omitting information about permissible NIL opportunities. Furthermore, participants considered themselves minimally involved in the NIL space, feeling on the low to average side of NIL engagement compared to their athlete-peers competing in men’s sports. The findings of this study are informative for …

The Leadership Pivot: How Labor Market Dynamics And The Ncaa Transfer Portal Impacts Leadership, Evan Wilson

Williams Honors College, Honors Research Projects

This project will cover a multitude of topics specific to my major, and also will use my in depth knowledge and connections within a collegiate sport to analyze how labor market changes effect the leadership styles of leaders within a given industry. This project is going to challenge me as a student because of the in depth research and data collection that will be necessary to not only educate myself about labor markets and leadership styles, but also educate myself enough to be able to present the information in a way that is digestible to readers. The other aspect of …

Beyond Amateurism: Examining The Potential Labor Expenses Of Ncaa Student-Athlete Employment, Alayna K. Falak, Tyler L. Custis

Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics

In light of recent administrative developments urging the classification of student-athletes as employees, litigation challenging the current employment status of student-athletes, and the Supreme Court’s willingness to tackle National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) issues, many questions surrounding the future of college sports under an employment model have emerged. The authors analyzed key litigation, recent developments from administrative agencies, and academic literature. The authors used publicly available data from the NCAA, the United States Department of Labor (DOL), and other sources to construct two estimates of what it would cost NCAA member institutions to provide baseline compensation to their Division I …

Focus On Followers: An Analysis Of Factors Impacting Division I Athletes’ Name, Image, And Likeness Value, Sarah Stokowski, Chris Corr, Andrew Rudd, Imani Lewis, Adria Powell, Abigail Stuart, Sydney Bellamy, Jaylen Rivers, Michael Godfrey

Journal of Applied Sport Management

Opportunities to engage in name, image, and likeness (NIL) partnerships have pervaded college athletics on numerous fronts. To contextualize the most important factors contributing to a college athletes’ NIL value, the present study analyzed High-Major basketball players NIL valuations during the 2023-2024 season. In total, data representing 69% of High-Major men’s basketball players (n = 572) and 52% of High-Major women’s basketball players (n = 429) was collected. Attempting to statistically control for factors such as institutional prestige, media exposure, and athletic performance, results indicate that an athlete’s social media following – specifically their Instagram following – is …

An Antitrust Analysis Of The Ncaa Transfer Policy, Michael Carrier, Marc Edelman

Texas A&M Law Review

The National Collegiate Athletic Association (“NCAA”) is no stranger to antitrust law. As a trade association composed of nearly all U.S. colleges offering competitive sports, its rules are regularly challenged under antitrust law. In the past 40 years, the NCAA has faced challenges to rules limiting televised game broadcasts, curtailing assistant coaches’ pay, and restraining players’ compensation, among other issues. Restraints on college athlete transfers also could subject the Association to reasonable legal scrutiny.

Restrictions on the ability to transfer can harm athletes by preventing their immediate eligibility even though transferring could allow them to be closer to family, enroll …