Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Keyword
-
- Physics (82)
- Mesosphere (32)
- Ionosphere (28)
- Problem set (23)
- Spacecraft charging (22)
-
- Gravity waves (20)
- Electron (19)
- General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology (19)
- General relativity (19)
- Spacecraft (17)
- High Energy Physics - Theory (16)
- Polymers (16)
- Rayleigh lidar (16)
- Lidar (15)
- Airglow (13)
- Conductivity (13)
- Charging (12)
- High-latitude (12)
- Space environment (12)
- Theoretical study (12)
- Electron emission (11)
- F region (11)
- Materials testing (11)
- Rayleigh-scatter lidar (11)
- Atmospheric Lidar Observatory (10)
- Cathodoluminescence (10)
- Electrostatic discharge (10)
- Gravitational waves (10)
- Many-particle systems (10)
- Mathematical Physics (10)
- Publication Year
- Publication
-
- All Physics Faculty Publications (651)
- Presentations (181)
- Posters (125)
- Physics Capstone Projects (117)
- Conference Proceedings (51)
-
- Journal Articles (43)
- Senior Theses and Projects (43)
- Physics Student Research (28)
- Problems (24)
- Graduate Student Posters (21)
- Browse All Undergraduate research (17)
- All Physics Faculty Presentations (15)
- Education and Outreach (12)
- Funded Research Records (12)
- Many Particles (10)
- Structure of Matter (10)
- General Relativity (9)
- Graduate Student Publications (9)
- Reports and Proposals (8)
- Conference publications (7)
- Publications (7)
- Special Relativity (7)
- Student Showcase (7)
- Exams (6)
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Faculty Publications (6)
- Graduate Student Presentations (5)
- Research on Capitol Hill (5)
- Schrodinger (5)
- Background (4)
- Reports (4)
Articles 1 - 30 of 1476
Full-Text Articles in Entire DC Network
Analyzing Atmospheric Gravity Waves Over Antarctica And Visualizing Machine Learning Data, Anastasia N. Brown
Analyzing Atmospheric Gravity Waves Over Antarctica And Visualizing Machine Learning Data, Anastasia N. Brown
Physics Capstone Projects
In an effort to streamline the identification of "clean" windows of airglow images in all sky imager data for the ANGWIN experiment, we have developed a Light Gradient Boosted Machine (LightGBM) learning algorithm that sorts "clean" (marked as 0) wave images from "obscured" (marked as 1) images. These "clean" windows are then processed and undergo FFT-spectrum analysis. We have already successfully created LightGBM models that accurately sort through images taken at the Davis, McMurdo, and Halley research stations in Antarctica. Imager data from the Davis and McMurdo station has been fully processed from the years 2012 to 2022 with clean …
Simulating Ice Particle Properties Under Varying Electric Fields, Joseph Cooney
Simulating Ice Particle Properties Under Varying Electric Fields, Joseph Cooney
Physics Capstone Projects
In this study, the interactions between atmospheric water molecules and an electrically charged dust particle were simulated in python to determine the role of electric charge and electric fields in atmospheric ice formation. Multiple levels of electric charge were tested, corresponding to different strengths of atmospheric electric fields. The TIP4P-2005 model for water was used to simulate these molecules under the influence of a central electric potential to represent the charged dust particle. These included a control group with no electric field (0 C), a group under a fair-weather strength of electric field (1.6*10-14 C), a foul-weather electric field (1.6*10-12 …
Non-Destructive Thickness Uniformity Measurement Of Photosensitive Gelatin Film, Clayton Halper
Non-Destructive Thickness Uniformity Measurement Of Photosensitive Gelatin Film, Clayton Halper
Physics Capstone Projects
Volume phase holographic gratings (VPHG’s) depend on dichromate gelatin of which uniform thickness is vital. The photosensitive nature of the film makes current thin film measurement devices not viable for production means. This project attempts to create a non-destructive measurement of photosensitive gelatin film used in VPHG production. Application of thin film interference at chosen wavelengths enable analysis of uniformity by comparison between the thin film inference patterns at different wavelengths. An initial proof of concept was established and a path towards a production ready device is outlined.
The First Variational Formula, The Phase Space Of Solutions, And The Ostrogradsky Formalism, Matthew Pontius, Drew Watson
The First Variational Formula, The Phase Space Of Solutions, And The Ostrogradsky Formalism, Matthew Pontius, Drew Watson
Physics Capstone Projects
We consider Lagrangians for classical mechanics which depend upon an arbitrary number of time derivatives of the configuration variables. From the boundary term in the first variation of the Lagrangian we derive the Ostrogradsky formulas which define the Hamiltonian formulation of mechanical systems.
Anomaly Detection On Small Wind Turbine Blades Using Deep Learning Algorithms, Bridger Altice, Edwin Nazario, Mason Davis, Mohammad Shekaramiz, Todd K. Moon, Mohammad A. S. Masoum
Anomaly Detection On Small Wind Turbine Blades Using Deep Learning Algorithms, Bridger Altice, Edwin Nazario, Mason Davis, Mohammad Shekaramiz, Todd K. Moon, Mohammad A. S. Masoum
Electrical and Computer Engineering Faculty Publications
Wind turbine blade maintenance is expensive, dangerous, time-consuming, and prone to misdiagnosis. A potential solution to aid preventative maintenance is using deep learning and drones for inspection and early fault detection. In this research, five base deep learning architectures are investigated for anomaly detection on wind turbine blades, including Xception, Resnet-50, AlexNet, and VGG-19, along with a custom convolutional neural network. For further analysis, transfer learning approaches were also proposed and developed, utilizing these architectures as the feature extraction layers. In order to investigate model performance, a new dataset containing 6000 RGB images was created, making use of indoor and …
Dynamics And Scaling Of Particle Streaks In High-Reynolds-Number Turbulent Boundary Layers, Tim Berk, Filippo Coletti
Dynamics And Scaling Of Particle Streaks In High-Reynolds-Number Turbulent Boundary Layers, Tim Berk, Filippo Coletti
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Faculty Publications
Inertial particles in wall-bounded turbulence are known to form streaks, but experimental evidence and predictive understanding of this phenomenon is lacking, especially in regimes relevant to atmospheric flows. We carry out wind tunnel measurements to investigate this process, characterizing the transport of microscopic particles suspended in turbulent boundary layers. The friction Reynolds number Re𝜏 = O(104) allows for significant scale separation and the emergence of large-scale motions, while the range of viscous Stokes number St+ = 18–870 is relevant to the transport of dust and fine sand in the atmospheric surface layer. We …
A Simple Method For Determining Shallow Charge Distributions In Dielectrics Via Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
A Simple Method For Determining Shallow Charge Distributions In Dielectrics Via Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
Journal Articles
The understanding of charge dynamics in dielectric materials is paramount in mitigating electrostatic discharge events for spacecraft. The most critical spacecraft charging events are found to result from incident electrons in the energy range of 10 keV to 50 keV. The charge embedded in dielectric materials in this energy range are deposited a distance into the material on the order of a few to tens of microns. One way to measure and understand the deposited charge is via pulsed electroacoustic measurements (PEA). However, the typical PEA spatial resolution of ~ 10 μm is not sufficient to resolve or discern charge …
Radon In Utah Homes, Madison Mackay
Radon In Utah Homes, Madison Mackay
Physics Capstone Projects
Radon gas can be found nearly everywhere. It is formed by the decay of radium, which is found in rocks, soil, plants, and animals. Radon gas can become trapped in buildings and is dangerous at high levels. It is particularly known to be high in many areas of the state of Utah. It is important for the average citizen in Utah to understand more about radon and what levels they may be exposed to. An experiment was done to try an alternate, faster method of testing for radon gas. This experiment was performed in several different locations in Utah. While …
Preparation, Characterization And Electron Yield Analysis On Highly Insulating Granular Particles, Heather Allen
Preparation, Characterization And Electron Yield Analysis On Highly Insulating Granular Particles, Heather Allen
Physics Capstone Projects
This study focuses on obtaining reliable electron yield measurements of highly insulating granular particles of various shape, size, and composition. Measurements of this kind have long been considered too difficult to collect on granular samples due to experimental complexities leading to a critical knowledge gap in the fundamental electrostatic behaviors of dust. A significant portion of this study was spent on preparing and characterizing granular samples before any type of measurement took place. Particles of varying sizes ranging from ~1 μm to ~100 μm, shapes including cubical, spherical, and angular, and composition including NaCl, MgO, Al2O3 and …
Engineering Lab Building Telescope Manual, Aidan L. Tueller
Engineering Lab Building Telescope Manual, Aidan L. Tueller
Physics Capstone Projects
In partnership with Dr. Jan Sojka, head of the Physics Department, a plan was created to make the telescope on top of the Engineering Lab building operational again for either staff, students, classes, or labs to use. The telescope was purchased through funds by Utah NASA Space Grant Consortium. This paper will contain basic information about how to operate the telescope and use its equipment. There is an online manual from Meade that is much longer but goes into much more detail about individual pieces and specific parts of the telescope.
Metasurfaces For Holography, Scott Howell
Metasurfaces For Holography, Scott Howell
Physics Capstone Projects
Holography uses the interference of light waves to store information about an object, which can then be seen from different angles to create a partial 3D view. A simple experiment can be done using a laser diode, photographic plate, and a set of dice to create a holographic image. The holographic film is thin and can only hold a single image. Reflection holography can create a 3D diffraction pattern and allows more information to be packed into a single medium. Computer generated holograms can be designed to create holograms without a real object to be used in augmented reality. High …
The Kp Index And Behavior Of Quiet Periods, Collette Walbeck
The Kp Index And Behavior Of Quiet Periods, Collette Walbeck
Physics Capstone Projects
The Kp-index quantifies the electromagnetic effects in the Earth’s atmosphere and is used in a variety of scientific fields. Higher Kp values tend to be the focus in these fields as they relate to high solar activity and geomagnetic storms. This study aimed to examine the significance, if any, of lower Kp indices. A simple data analysis was performed on continuous sequences of low Kp values, deemed Quiet Periods. Both the daily average of the values and the full set of Kp data were used. A decaying exponential relationship was discovered between the length of these periods and their frequencies …
High Frequency Radio Communication, Tyler Larsen
High Frequency Radio Communication, Tyler Larsen
Physics Capstone Projects
High frequency radio communication has been the most reliable form of communication for many decades. Over that period, we have learned and experienced times of enhanced signals along with complete radio blackouts. The purpose of this research is to collect and analyze radio signal data to see the evidence of various reasons as to why these phenomena occur. A radio antenna was set up at USU campus to retrieve the signals from beacon networks across the globe that transmit signals every 15 minutes. By tracking a few of these signals we can locate the times of discrepancies in the signals …
Effectiveness Of Multilayer Graded-Z Forms Of Radiation Shielding, Brinley Packer
Effectiveness Of Multilayer Graded-Z Forms Of Radiation Shielding, Brinley Packer
Physics Capstone Projects
This study explored how different forms of radiation shielding were more or less effective than standard single-layer shielding. Beta and gamma radiation sources were used and measured using a Geiger counter to determine how well the various forms of shielding protect against the radiation. The shielding effectiveness of standard homogeneous materials (e.g., graphite, carbon/epoxy composites, aluminum, and lead) of various thicknesses for different radiation sources was measured to provide standards for comparison. Once a basis of effective shielding was established, the study can go into greater depth into how to use shielding materials to be more effective, to better shield …
Relevancy Of Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements For Investigating Spacecraft Charging, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
Relevancy Of Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements For Investigating Spacecraft Charging, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
Journal Articles
The magnitude and spatial distribution of charge embedded in dielectric materials and the evolution of the charge distributions with time are paramount for the understanding and mitigation of spacecraft charging. Spacecraft materials are charged primarily by incident fluxes of low-energy electrons, with electron fluxes in the 10–50 keV range often responsible for the most deleterious arcing effects. While the pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method can provide sensitive nondestructive measurements of the internal charge distribution in insulating materials, it has often been limited for spacecraft charging applications by typical spatial resolutions of ≤ 10 μm , with a 10- μm …
Space Environment Effects On The Electron Yields Of Ldef Thermal Control Coatings, Trace Taylor, Matthew Robertson, Heather Allen, Jr Dennison, Michael Guy, Emily Willis
Space Environment Effects On The Electron Yields Of Ldef Thermal Control Coatings, Trace Taylor, Matthew Robertson, Heather Allen, Jr Dennison, Michael Guy, Emily Willis
Journal Articles
Space-environment-induced degradation of white thermal control coatings from the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was investigated. Much of the exterior of the LDEF was painted with a white thermal control coating, Aeroglaze A276; and most of the interior was coated with a black thermal control coating, Aeroglaze Z306. Outgassing from these coatings and other LDEF materials interacted with the white surface when exposed to sunlight after volatile materials condensed on the LDEF surfaces. Surface morphology was characterized by optical and scanning electron microscopies. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and energy-dispersive x-ray spectroscopy were used to identify the chemical compounds and elements present …
Comparison Of Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements And Af-Numit3 Modeling Of Polymers Irradiated With Monoenergetic Electrons, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison, Brian Beecken, Ryan Hoffmann
Comparison Of Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements And Af-Numit3 Modeling Of Polymers Irradiated With Monoenergetic Electrons, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison, Brian Beecken, Ryan Hoffmann
Journal Articles
Successful spacecraft design and charging mitigation techniques require precise and accurate knowledge of charge deposition profiles. This paper compares models of charge deposition and transport using a venerable deep dielectric charging code, AF-NUMIT3, with direct measurements of charge profiles via pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) measurements. Eight different simulations were performed for comparison to PEA experiments of samples irradiated by 50 or 80 keV monoenergetic electrons in vacuum and at room temperature. Two materials, polyether-ether ketone (PEEK) and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), were chosen for their very low conductivities so that minimal charge migration would occur between irradiation and PEA measurements. PEEK was found …
Characterizing The Charging Properties Of Lunar Dust Is Critical To Returning To The Moon, Heather Allen
Characterizing The Charging Properties Of Lunar Dust Is Critical To Returning To The Moon, Heather Allen
Research on Capitol Hill
Reliable electron yield (EY) measurements of highly insulating granular particles have long been considered too difficult to collect due the many experimental complexities that arise from the nature of the granular materials. This has led to a critical knowledge gap for both engineering strategies and basic science issues essential for myriad important space applications. This talk will emphasize the preliminary EY measurements of highly insulating granular samples we have collected, including a range of sasmples with typical particle size ranging from ~1 μm to ~100 μm, samples with cubical, spherical and highly angular particle shapes, studies of highly angular Al2O3 …
Grinding Cocoa Changes Chocolate Properties, Joseph Cooney
Grinding Cocoa Changes Chocolate Properties, Joseph Cooney
Research on Capitol Hill
This research studies how the viscoelastic properties of chocolate change through the 72-hour grinding process of chocolate manufacturing. Utah State University's Aggie Chocolate Factory produces chocolate from single-origin sources, each of which has a unique flavor, and thus a unique chemistry. This research explores the effects of grinding time on the viscoelasticity of each of these origins' chocolate types, including dark, sweet dark chocolate, and milk chocolate. Chocolate is a non-Newtonian fluid and therefore the Casson model (eq. 1) was used to obtain values for viscosity and yield stress, τ^(1/2)=τ_0^(1/2)+(η_PL y' )^(1/2) (1) Where τ is the shear stress measured …
Effects Of Exposure To Atmospheric Humidity On Breakdown Field Strength Measurements Of Polymers, Megan Loveland Dewaal
Effects Of Exposure To Atmospheric Humidity On Breakdown Field Strength Measurements Of Polymers, Megan Loveland Dewaal
Physics Capstone Projects
This study investigates the effects of absorbed water introduced via exposure to atmospheric humidity on electrostatic breakdown field strength measurements of polymers. Conducting breakdown tests under sample conditions appropriate for different applications is essential. If the breakdown field strength is overestimated for an application, an insulator may be used inappropriately in high electric fields where they are more likely to break down. Comparisons are made between: sets of pristine samples, samples that underwent a thorough vacuum bake out to remove absorbed water, and samples subject to subsequent incremental prolonged atmospheric exposure. These investigated the effects of absorbed water and determined …
Spacecraft Charging Test Considerations For Composite Materials, Allen Andersen, Wousik Kim, J. R. Dennison, Brian Wood, Todd A. Schneider, Jason Vaughn, Kenneth H. Wright Jr., Nelson W. Green, Eric Suh, Joel Schwartz, Abdul-Majeed Azad
Spacecraft Charging Test Considerations For Composite Materials, Allen Andersen, Wousik Kim, J. R. Dennison, Brian Wood, Todd A. Schneider, Jason Vaughn, Kenneth H. Wright Jr., Nelson W. Green, Eric Suh, Joel Schwartz, Abdul-Majeed Azad
Journal Articles
Composite materials present a growing challenge for spacecraft charging assessments. We review some recent lessons learned for charging tests of composite materials using both parallel-plate and electron beam test geometries. We also discuss examples of materials that exhibit significant variations between samples, despite them all having the same trade name.
Inertial Motion On The Earth's Spheroidal Surface, Boyd F. Edwards, Cade Pankey, John M. Edwards
Inertial Motion On The Earth's Spheroidal Surface, Boyd F. Edwards, Cade Pankey, John M. Edwards
All Physics Faculty Publications
As seen by an observer in the rotating frame, the earth’s small spheroidal deformations neutralize the centrifugal force, leaving only the smaller Coriolis force to govern the “inertial” motion of objects that move on its surface, assumed smooth and frictionless. Previous studies of inertial motion employ weakly spheroidal equations of motion that ignore the influence of the centrifugal force and yet treat the earth as a sphere. The latitude dependence of these equations renders them strongly nonlinear. We derive and justify these equations and use them to identify, classify, name, describe, and illustrate all possible classes of inertial motion, including …
Round Robin Tests Of Electron Irradiated Polymers Via Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison, Virginie Griseri
Round Robin Tests Of Electron Irradiated Polymers Via Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison, Virginie Griseri
Physics Student Research
Charge accumulation and migration can be studied using the pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method to directly measure internal charge distributions in dielectric materials. This study aims to compare measurements using PEA systems constructed in labs at Utah State University and Université Paul Sabatier to establish confidence in comparing PEA results between different PEA systems. While there is good agreement in data measured for pristine samples with DC bias applied and no charge embedded, there are discrepancies in the data when measuring irradiated samples with embedded charge. The overall characteristics of charge distributions measured with both systems is clearly the same, but …
Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements Of Polymers Irradiated With Low Energy Monoenergetic Electrons, Zachary Gibson, Jr Dennison
Pulsed Electroacoustic Measurements Of Polymers Irradiated With Low Energy Monoenergetic Electrons, Zachary Gibson, Jr Dennison
Physics Student Research
Understanding the dynamics and accumulation of embedded charge in dielectric materials is paramount for many applications from HVDC power transmission to spacecraft charging. The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method allows for nondestructive measurements of embedded charge distributions in dielectrics. The spatial resolution of PEA measurements are typically ~10 μm. However, some of the most deleterious spacecraft charging events result from electron fluxes with 10 keV to 50 keV energies, resulting in electron ranges of 1's to 10's of μm. Due to the resolution of the PEA method and the superposition of the interfacial charge with the deposited charge distribution, it is …
Uncertainties Of The Pulsed Electroacoustic Method: Peak Positions Of Embedded Charge Distributions, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
Uncertainties Of The Pulsed Electroacoustic Method: Peak Positions Of Embedded Charge Distributions, Zachary Gibson, J. R. Dennison
Physics Student Research
The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method allows for nondestructive measurements of internal charge distributions in dielectric materials. These measurements have been paramount in understanding and mitigating charge accumulation, aging, and electrostatic discharge in materials for various applications. This study aims to examine more closely the uncertainties of pulsed electroacoustic measurements. The first few moments of a charge distribution are directly related to the magnitude, peak position, full-width-at-half-maximum, and skewness. The uncertainty in the magnitude of the charge distribution is often quite large, but the peak position can be determined with a precision of <1 μm. This has been demonstrated in our lab with repeated PEA measurements of polyether-etherketone (PEEK) with internal charge present. This precision is further validated with measurements of PEEK irradiated with differing doses of 50 keV incident electrons, resulting in peak positions that differ by only a few μm. A final test is given by measurements monitoring the slow migration of the charge distributions in these irradiated samples over several months. The measured shifts in the peak position of the charge distributions are ≤1 μm. Though the spatial resolutions of PEA measurements are typically ~10 μm, as defined by the full- width-at-half-maximum of the leading interfacial peak, the precision of the peak position can be more than an order of magnitude greater. The statistical analysis of the repeated measurements to determine uncertainties, as well as the validation measurements, demonstrate the high precision determination of the peak position of embedded charge distributions.
What Is A Photon? Foundations Of Quantum Field Theory, Charles G. Torre
What Is A Photon? Foundations Of Quantum Field Theory, Charles G. Torre
All Physics Faculty Publications
This is a brief, informal, and relatively low-level course on the foundations of quantum field theory. The prerequisites are undergraduate courses in quantum mechanics and electromagnetism.
Normal-Mode Oscillations For The Circular And Dipolar States Of A Filled Hexagonal Magnetic Dipole Cluster, Peter T. Haugen, Andrew D. P. Smith, Boyd F. Edwards
Normal-Mode Oscillations For The Circular And Dipolar States Of A Filled Hexagonal Magnetic Dipole Cluster, Peter T. Haugen, Andrew D. P. Smith, Boyd F. Edwards
All Physics Faculty Publications
We analyze the rotational dynamics of six magnetic dipoles of identical strength at the vertices of a regular hexagon with a variable-strength dipole in the center. The seven dipoles spin freely about fixed axes that are perpendicular to the plane of the hexagon, with their dipole moments directed parallel to the plane. Equilibrium dipole orientations are calculated as a function of the relative strength of the central dipole. Small-amplitude perturbations about these equilibrium states are calculated in the absence of friction and are compared with analytical results in the limit of zero and infinite central dipole strength. Normal modes and …
Large Earthquakes' Effect On The Ionosphere, Aaron Houston
Large Earthquakes' Effect On The Ionosphere, Aaron Houston
Physics Capstone Projects
The ionosphere is a part of the Earth’s atmosphere that stretches from 80 – 600 kilometers. Gases in this area are ionized which creates a range of free electrons that make up the plasma of the ionosphere. A group of these electrons is known as Total Electron Content (TEC), which is responsible for signal delays between satellites in orbit and their GPS receivers on the surface. Using this delay, the TEC in a specific region can be calculated. This helps in GPS error analysis. During the earthquake in Japan on March 11, 2011, there was allegedly a noticeable jump in …
Improving The Efficiency Of The Preconditioning Of Iterative Solutions To The Kinetic Equation, D. Caleb Price
Improving The Efficiency Of The Preconditioning Of Iterative Solutions To The Kinetic Equation, D. Caleb Price
Physics Capstone Projects
To achieve the reality of fusion, a greater understanding of plasma is required. The kinetic equation can be evolved simultaneously alongside the fluid equations to solve for kinetic closures. NIMROD performs this with numerical solvers where the General Minimum Residual (GMRES) solver becomes more efficient with a preconditioning matrix as input. Using a GPU-enabled library, the efficiency of GPU offloading to the preconditioning step was tested. A significant decrease in the factoring time of preconditioning matrix was observed. This suggests that the allocation of GPUs is worth investigating for NIMROD’s own benefit, but also anyone seeking to improve the efficiency …
Seasonal Variations In Global Ionospheric Total Electron Content, Jason Knudsen
Seasonal Variations In Global Ionospheric Total Electron Content, Jason Knudsen
Physics Capstone Projects
As the Sun ionizes atoms and molecules in the Earth’s ionosphere, the region of atmosphere above approximately 100 km in altitude, the created ionization in this region affects many of the systems that we rely on in daily life. This includes cellular service, GPS navigation, weather forecasting, and credit card data. A good measure for the level of ionization in the ionosphere is total electron content (TEC), which is the number of electrons in a square column above a given geographic location. The TEC over a geographic location influences the propagation of radio waves that traverse that section of the …