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Full-Text Articles in Psychology
Exploring Diversity With Statistics: Step-By-Step Jasp Guides, Ruth Walker, Ashlyn Moraine, Hannah Osborn, Kristen J. Black, Asia Palmer, Kendra Scott, Leigh Humphrey, Julie Madden, Erin Prince
Exploring Diversity With Statistics: Step-By-Step Jasp Guides, Ruth Walker, Ashlyn Moraine, Hannah Osborn, Kristen J. Black, Asia Palmer, Kendra Scott, Leigh Humphrey, Julie Madden, Erin Prince
Open Textbooks
These resources were created to complement our undergraduate statistics lab manual, Applied Data Analysis in Psychology: Exploring Diversity with Statistics, published by Kendall Hunt publishing company. Like our lab manual, these JASP walk-through guides meaningfully and purposefully integrate and highlight diversity research to teach students how to analyze data in an open-source statistical program. The data sets utilized in these guides are from open-access databases (e.g., Pew Research Center, PLoS One, ICPSR, and more). Guides with step-by-step instructions, including annotated images and examples of how to report findings in APA format, are included for the following statistical tests: independent samples …
Hiv-Related Stigma: A Negative & Intersecting Life Experience, Taylor Beckwith
Hiv-Related Stigma: A Negative & Intersecting Life Experience, Taylor Beckwith
Modern Psychological Studies
In 2016, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) affected over 1.1 million people in the United States. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) medications have allowed HIV-positive individuals to live longer lives, but this has meant greater exposure to HIV-related stigma. This literature review examines how HIV exists as a chronic disease and how HIV-related stigma contributes to a negative life experience. The concept of intersectionality is used to analyze the overlapping identities of (a) gay, bisexual men, (b) women, (c) and youth and adolescents. Even though individuals may be managing their diagnosis, added stress, stigma, and maladaptive coping mechanisms can lead to negative health …
Precursors And Outcomes: A Look At Mental Health In Relation To Homelessness, Mercedes Pinillo
Precursors And Outcomes: A Look At Mental Health In Relation To Homelessness, Mercedes Pinillo
Modern Psychological Studies
The homeless epidemic has reached new heights with over half a million individuals reporting experiencing homelessness in the past year alone. Mental health problems such as bipolar/mood disorders, schizophrenia, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have been found as predictors of homelessness. Mental health problems such as fear, anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideations have been identified as outcomes of experiencing homelessness. Treatment options follow either the housing-first or treatment-first model. Housing-first treatments yield better and longer-lasting results of housing stability and improved mental health than treatment-first services. A lack of proper funding and mental health problems were found to be barriers …
Adaptive Decision-Making As A Mediator Between Self-Complexity And Stress, Jeremy L. Foust, Stephanie B. Richman
Adaptive Decision-Making As A Mediator Between Self-Complexity And Stress, Jeremy L. Foust, Stephanie B. Richman
Modern Psychological Studies
Abstract Empirical studies have indicated a relationship between self-complexity and stress, such that greater self-complexity is associated with reduced stress. In addition, previous research has suggested that greater self-complexity allows for more advantageous decisions. Finally, previous studies have demonstrated a bidirectional relationship between adaptive decision-making and stress, such that increased stress is associated with a decreased ability to make adaptive decisions, which, in turn, increases future stress. However, no research to date has examined the mechanism behind these relationships. We hypothesized that greater self-complexity would lead to less stress and this relationship would be mediated by increased adaptive decision-making. Fifty-six …
Diagnosis Disclosure: The Impact Of Gender And Stigma, Sarah E. Gerrish
Diagnosis Disclosure: The Impact Of Gender And Stigma, Sarah E. Gerrish
Modern Psychological Studies
Existing literature has indicated that there may be a relationship between diagnosis disclosure and gender as it has been asserted that men and women perceive the diagnosis of a mental health disorder differently. Specifically, men report higher levels of perceived stigma when considering a mental health diagnosis and women report a higher likelihood of disclosing a mental health diagnosis to others. The purpose of this current study was to investigate how individuals perceive an illness diagnosis disclosure via an online survey as it was hypothesized that men would be less likely than women to disclose any illness and that all …
The Relationship Between Homonegativity, Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance, Harasser And Target Sex, And Perceptions Of Sexual Harassment, Emily J. Ready, Hannah S. Bologna, Leilani B. Goodmon, Patrick Smith
The Relationship Between Homonegativity, Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance, Harasser And Target Sex, And Perceptions Of Sexual Harassment, Emily J. Ready, Hannah S. Bologna, Leilani B. Goodmon, Patrick Smith
Modern Psychological Studies
The current purpose was to determine the relationship between participant homonegativity, sexual harassment myth acceptance, and perceptions of sexual harassment where the gender of the target and harasser varied. Contrary to the hypothesis, higher and lower homonegativity participants did not differ in their perceptions of harassment severity, realism, or consequence and higher homonegativity participants did not report any differences in perceptions between the different-sex and same-sex scenarios. However as hypothesized, participant homonegativity was positively correlated with sexual harassment myth acceptance. Interestingly, participants higher in homonegativity or sexual harassment myth acceptance were more likely to rate the harassment as less severe …
Effects Of An Aqua-Titanium Necklace On Running Speed When Examined At The Individual And Group Levels, Nathan A. Weber, Mychal A. Machado, Duane D. Wood
Effects Of An Aqua-Titanium Necklace On Running Speed When Examined At The Individual And Group Levels, Nathan A. Weber, Mychal A. Machado, Duane D. Wood
Modern Psychological Studies
Results from previous evaluations of athletic wearables infused with Aqua Titanium have been mixed with respect to ergogenic effectiveness. This might be due to exclusive reliance on group designs in previous studies. The purpose of our study was to evaluate and compare the individual and group differences in responsiveness to an Aqua-Titanium necklace. Using a single-subject (reversal) design, we measured the running speed of 10 healthy adults across baseline (no necklace), test (Aqua-Titanium necklace) and placebo conditions using a 61-m indoor track. The entire sample was then considered for group analyses. Results showed that our single-subject and group analyses produced …
Consequences Of The Ambiguous Insult: A Review Of Literature On Gender, Race, And Lgbtq-Based Microaggressions, Emily Halvorson
Consequences Of The Ambiguous Insult: A Review Of Literature On Gender, Race, And Lgbtq-Based Microaggressions, Emily Halvorson
Modern Psychological Studies
For over thirty years, microaggressions have been studied for their weight on members of groups like ethnic and racial minorities, women and members of the LGBTQ community. Microaggressions are the routine, derogatory interactions like slights gestures, snubs or minor insults. Microaggressions yield physical and psychological distress to victims and communicate to marginalized groups the biases and prejudices against them harbored by majority group members. This taxonomy divides the experiences of microaggressions into the categories of gender, racial and LGBTQ-based sectors, as well as the subcategories that are relevant to the experiences of the members when faced with microaggressions.
The Relationship Between Religiosity And Attitudes Toward Women At A Conservative Christian College, Sara Kemp
The Relationship Between Religiosity And Attitudes Toward Women At A Conservative Christian College, Sara Kemp
Modern Psychological Studies
Research suggests that religiosity influences attitudes toward women more strongly than does any other demographic. In many studies, it has also been indicated that men hold more conservative gender attitudes than do women. Many religious denominations have been represented in such research, but no previous studies have included Seventh-day Adventist participants. The present study aimed to examine the relationship between religiosity and attitudes toward women amongst students at a Seventh-day Adventist college in the Midwest. A total of 74 students, 88% of which were Seventh-day Adventist, participated by completing the Centrality of Religiosity Scale and the Attitudes Toward Women Scale. …
Plato, The Brain, And The Soul: Further Research Into Neural Correlates For Plato’S Tripartite Soul, Stayce R. Camparo
Plato, The Brain, And The Soul: Further Research Into Neural Correlates For Plato’S Tripartite Soul, Stayce R. Camparo
Modern Psychological Studies
This paper explores neuropsychological evidence for Plato’s philosophical theory of the tripartite soul as explained in Plato’s Republic. Plato contends that an express relationship of the three elements that make-up the soul (reason, appetitive, and spirit) interact to promote just behavior, and that just behavior is optimal for individual and societal well-being. Specifically, just behavior is considered to arise from reason’s oversight of the other two elements. Apparent in this theory is the proximity Plato’s analysis has with the current psychological understanding of cognitions that activate behaviors. Strack and Deutsch’s (2004) 2-system model of reflective and impulsive processing, with the …
Relations Between Self-Efficacy And Procrastination Types In College Students, Stephanie Da Silva Phd, Amanda Smith, Michael Facciolo
Relations Between Self-Efficacy And Procrastination Types In College Students, Stephanie Da Silva Phd, Amanda Smith, Michael Facciolo
Modern Psychological Studies
The relation of self-efficacy to procrastination was assessed using the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995), Active Procrastination Scale (Chu & Choi, 2005), and items from the General Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986). Each of 106 college students was assigned a self-efficacy score and multiple procrastination scores. General procrastination was negatively correlated with self-efficacy (p = .001), whereas active procrastination was positively correlated with self-efficacy (p = .02). In domains where students feel more competent, they are more likely to engage in active forms of procrastination rather than maladaptive procrastination. Relations between self-efficacy and different types of procrastination, along with …
Exploring Associations Between Student Academic Achievement, Worry, Personality, And Parental Warmth And Control, Katherine G. Kaufling, Courtney Keim
Exploring Associations Between Student Academic Achievement, Worry, Personality, And Parental Warmth And Control, Katherine G. Kaufling, Courtney Keim
Modern Psychological Studies
Parenting styles are related to high academic achievement (AA) and worrying, and yet excessive worrying may be related to lower AA. This study evaluates the potential nuanced relationships between AA, worry, parental warmth and control, and conscientiousness. 273 college students self-reported their GPAs and ACT scores, level of worry, conscientiousness, and their caregivers’ warmth and control. Parental warmth and control predicated AA, conscientiousness, and worry (r2 = .02 - .10), especially for male caregivers. Conscientiousness (R2 = .08) and worry (R2 = .03) moderated the relationship between parenting for male caregivers and academic achievement. Implications discussed include informing parents of …
Writing About One's Best Possible Self To Influence Task Persistence, Stephanie G. Holmes, Heather M. Mccarren
Writing About One's Best Possible Self To Influence Task Persistence, Stephanie G. Holmes, Heather M. Mccarren
Modern Psychological Studies
Previous research has identified a correlation between optimism and increased persistence. Existing research also suggests that optimism can be manipulated to induce a mindset of positive outcome expectancies. Writing about and imagining one’s best possible self (BPS) has resulted in an increase in an individual’s positive outcome expectancies, but the effect of BPS on related constructs has yet to be examined. Thirty university students participated in a study to investigate whether participants primed with optimism using BPS would persist longer on an impossible anagram task. A t-test revealed that participants primed with BPS spent significantly longer on the anagrams than …
Digital Resources For Pain Management: Psychologists' Perspectives And Suggestions, Kate Mckinlay, Anna Chur-Hansen
Digital Resources For Pain Management: Psychologists' Perspectives And Suggestions, Kate Mckinlay, Anna Chur-Hansen
Modern Psychological Studies
Chronic pain has high prevalence, complexity, psychosocial and economic impact. There is a growing interest in the development and use of digital resources accessed through electronic devices for pain management. Qualitative interviews with eight registered psychologists explored their perspectives of and suggestions regarding digital resources for pain management. Six overarching themes were identified, indicating that digital resources are perceived as useful. Difficulties were identified pertaining to digital social support and client-decision making, plus perceived barriers and facilitators for digital resource use. Participants offered suggestions about what an ideal digital resource would incorporate. These findings may inform the modification of existing …
Youth, Interrupted: Encouraging A Holistic Approach To Juvenile Incarceration Policy, Ashley Tisdale
Youth, Interrupted: Encouraging A Holistic Approach To Juvenile Incarceration Policy, Ashley Tisdale
Modern Psychological Studies
Scientific research into the experience of juveniles in detention has recently had an impact on court rulings. In the cases of Roper v Simmons (2005), Graham v Florida (2010) and Miller v. Alabama (2012) judges used research in juvenile cognitive development to inform their rulings. Though current research covers different aspects of juvenile experience in the criminal justice system, few studies approach the subject holistically or examine the inherent symbiotic relationship between juvenile detention policy and juvenile incarceration. This literature review seeks to present information on and encourage further examination of this relationship. For the purposes of the review, the …
Parental Perceptions Of Children With And Without Learning Disabilities, Leah I. Janikowski, Jill M. Norvilitis
Parental Perceptions Of Children With And Without Learning Disabilities, Leah I. Janikowski, Jill M. Norvilitis
Modern Psychological Studies
The present study examined differences in how parents of children with and without learning disabilities perceive their children academically. Of 235 participants, all recruited through Amazon’s MTurk platform, 124 (52%) had a child with a learning disability. Compared to parents of children without learning disabilities, parents who had children with learning disabilities reported that their children were less motivated and that their children cared less about getting good grades. Parents of children with a disability reported lower parental satisfaction compared to parents of children without learning disabilities. Among parents of children with learning disabilities, greater perception of stigma was negatively …
Conceal, Don't Feel: Gender Differences In Implicit And Explicit Expressions Of Emotions, Sara Carlton, Abbey Harrison, Sydney Honoré, Leilani B. Goodmon
Conceal, Don't Feel: Gender Differences In Implicit And Explicit Expressions Of Emotions, Sara Carlton, Abbey Harrison, Sydney Honoré, Leilani B. Goodmon
Modern Psychological Studies
Previous studies revealed that gender-role conforming men rated themselves lower on emotional scales (Etherton, Lawson, & Graham, 2014) and expressed emotion less freely than women in experimental situations (Brody, Lovas, & Hay, 1995). Further, men with high gender-role stress indicated fear of losing control over emotions (Jakupcak, 2003). The purpose of the current study was to explore if the physiological response to emotional suppression is similar to that associated with fear and anxiety. Gender-role conforming men and women experienced fearful and emotional stimuli. Experimenters recorded explicit and implicit reactions before and after exposure. Results showed females experienced greater changes in …
Effects Of Emotion On Binge-Watching, Victoria Anozie
Effects Of Emotion On Binge-Watching, Victoria Anozie
Modern Psychological Studies
Previous studies have shown that binge-watching produces emotional effects. The current study examined whether there was an association between the frequency of binge-watching and negative and positive emotions. A survey was administered to 66 participants recruited from a Southern private institution. A multiple regression and correlation analysis were run on the data. Results from the analysis were significant, confirming our hypothesis that people who binge-watched more experienced negative emotions such as loss of control and dependency, and people who binge-watched less experienced more positive emotions. The implications do not show that binge-watching effects psychosocial outcomes. Suggestions for future research are …
Evaluation Of Antecedent Ambiguity On Identification And Categorization Of Behavior In Lunar-Effects Research, Brenda M. Gabbert, Mychal A. Machado
Evaluation Of Antecedent Ambiguity On Identification And Categorization Of Behavior In Lunar-Effects Research, Brenda M. Gabbert, Mychal A. Machado
Modern Psychological Studies
We created an online survey to determine the degree to which 114 participants could correctly identify and categorize scripted visual examples of typical and atypical behavior when the antecedent preceding those behaviors was not present. We also asked participants to determine whether our visual examples of behavior occurred in the presence of a full moon, and subsequently evaluated these data in the context of participant’s self-reported belief in lunar-effects. Our results show the absence of an antecedent event influenced some participants’ identification and categorization accuracy scores, and that participants with a prior belief in lunar effects were more likely to …
Attachment To God As A Function Of Mortality Salience And Intrinsic Religiosity, Jill Hoffman, Robert B. Arrowood, Maddie Weinstock, Arielle Cenin, Cathy R. Cox
Attachment To God As A Function Of Mortality Salience And Intrinsic Religiosity, Jill Hoffman, Robert B. Arrowood, Maddie Weinstock, Arielle Cenin, Cathy R. Cox
Modern Psychological Studies
The present study examined the association between intrinsic religiosity and attachment to God following mortality salience. Participants (N = 158) consisted of Christian individuals who were asked to complete the Religious Orientation Scale (Allport & Ross, 1967) as a measure of intrinsic religiosity, a word search puzzle to prime either death-related or neutral words, and the Attachment to God Inventory (Beck & McDonald, 2004). A moderated regression found a significant interaction between MS and intrinsic religiosity on avoidant but not anxious attachment to God. Specifically, following reminders of death, low intrinsic individuals were more avoidant toward God compared to high …
Affective Reactions Towards Physically Disabled Individuals In Private And Public Conditions, Katherine Shaw, Sherri Pataki
Affective Reactions Towards Physically Disabled Individuals In Private And Public Conditions, Katherine Shaw, Sherri Pataki
Modern Psychological Studies
This research examined people’s emotional reactions to being assigned to work with an individual with a physical disability. Forty-seven undergraduate students were randomly assigned to a disability versus non-disability condition and a public versus private condition. All participants were asked to report their current moods before a supposed upcoming interaction related to teamwork. We predicted participants would report more negative emotions in the disability condition and privately in comparison to publicly. Participants reported more irritability when they believed the person they would be working with was disabled. Participants concealed feelings of irritability, nervousness, and discomfort regardless of disability. These findings …
Love, Language, And Linear Algebra: Linguistic Modeling Of Personality And Mate Preference, Caleb Z. Marshall, Erin M. Buchanan, Melissa Duncan Fallone
Love, Language, And Linear Algebra: Linguistic Modeling Of Personality And Mate Preference, Caleb Z. Marshall, Erin M. Buchanan, Melissa Duncan Fallone
Modern Psychological Studies
This study utilized Latent Semantic Analysis to determine whether similarities in personality predicted similarities in responses to a romantic writing prompt (Landauer & Dumais, 1997). From participants’ writing samples, we calculated thematic cosines (a measure of relatedness) between each male and female participant. Participants also completed the Big Five Personality Questionnaire Short Form (Morizet, 2014). Extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related to cosines, which suggested small-medium relationships from personality traits to written responses. This relationship was consistent with previous studies; therefore, Latent Semantic Analysis may be useful in quantifying mate preference, especially when alongside traditional survey methods. We conclude with …
Predictors Of Sleep Quality: Depression, Anxiety, And Sleep Self-Efficacy, Rayanna Johnson 3592665, Ei E. Hlaing
Predictors Of Sleep Quality: Depression, Anxiety, And Sleep Self-Efficacy, Rayanna Johnson 3592665, Ei E. Hlaing
Modern Psychological Studies
The objective of the current study was to examine the relationship between depression, anxiety, sleep self-efficacy, and sleep quality among college students by using both objective measures and self-reported data. Participants included 27 undergraduate students from a small liberal arts college who wore ActiGraph wristbands for a period of seven nights. Participants also completed anxiety, depression, sleep self-efficacy, and subjective sleep quality scales. Results indicated that higher sleep self-efficacy scores were associated with lower anxiety and depression scores. Higher subjective sleep quality was associated with higher sleep self-efficacy scores and lower depression and anxiety scores. This study supports the need …
Political Attitudes Of The Young Electorate In The 2016 Presidential Election And Parental Influences On Political Identity Formation., Mary C. Meyer, Svetlana Chesser, Sally B. Swanson, Sean Forbes
Political Attitudes Of The Young Electorate In The 2016 Presidential Election And Parental Influences On Political Identity Formation., Mary C. Meyer, Svetlana Chesser, Sally B. Swanson, Sean Forbes
Modern Psychological Studies
We examined the political attitudes of college-aged students and the political identities of their parents to better understand the role that both parent-child political socialization and the liberal university environment play in political identity formation. We compared students explicit and implicit political attitudes and examined the relationships of these attitudes to the political identities of their parents. We also explored the uniqueness of two candidates, Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump in the 2016 Presidential election. Our results supported the existing notion of parental influences on political identity formation and revealed that the university environment may not play as large of …
Sexual Victimization Experience Predicting Empathy With An Unspecified Or Date Rape Victim, Gina Santoriello, Suzanne L. Osman
Sexual Victimization Experience Predicting Empathy With An Unspecified Or Date Rape Victim, Gina Santoriello, Suzanne L. Osman
Modern Psychological Studies
The purpose of this study was to examine empathy with a rape victim in two experimental conditions (date rape; unspecified rape) based on personal sexual victimization experience (nonvictim; date victim; nondate victim). Undergraduate women (n = 212) completed the Sexual Experiences Survey (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987), and one of two versions of the Rape Victim Empathy Scale (Smith & Frieze, 2003). Results showed that all victims reported greater empathy than nonvictims, and a potential interaction (p < .10); date victims tended to report greater empathy with a date rape victim than an unspecified rape victim, but nondate victims tended to report greater empathy with an unspecified rape victim than a date rape victim. Similarity in experience may influence empathy.
Child Outcomes Of Having A Parent With An Aud, Faith A. Shank, Kirsten Petrarca, Carolyn Barry
Child Outcomes Of Having A Parent With An Aud, Faith A. Shank, Kirsten Petrarca, Carolyn Barry
Modern Psychological Studies
Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) affects not only the diagnosed individuals, but also those around them. This review explores how an AUD can affect parenting styles and, in turn, children’s development in four main areas of development (physical health, academic abilities, social development, and mental health). Generally, parents with an AUD negatively impact the child’s development (weight issues, poor academic skills, and aggressiveness). Existing limitations of the literature and future research directions are discussed, such as the use of cross-sectional studies and need for more clinical and longitudinal studies. Also, research on this topic extensively covers the situations of children within …
Effects Of Age And Gender On Spatial Navigation: Evidence From Samoan Primary School Children, Jacqueline Moses, Jessica Kubert
Effects Of Age And Gender On Spatial Navigation: Evidence From Samoan Primary School Children, Jacqueline Moses, Jessica Kubert
Modern Psychological Studies
This study examined the effects of age and gender on spatial navigation ability. Samoan Primary School students (N = 40) aged 7-12 years were tested on performance of a Size Test and a Corsi Test, followed by a Spatial Navigation Test. It was hypothesized that older children would perform better at all tasks, especially the Spatial Navigation Test. It was further hypothesized that males would perform better than females at the Spatial Navigation Test and that males would employ more detailed strategies in traversing the spatial navigation space. Lastly, it was hypothesized that increased performance on the Size and Corsi …
A Comparison Of Resiliency In Adult Children Of Alcoholics Versus Adult Children Of Non-Alcoholics, Skylar Redlin, Jamie Borchardt
A Comparison Of Resiliency In Adult Children Of Alcoholics Versus Adult Children Of Non-Alcoholics, Skylar Redlin, Jamie Borchardt
Modern Psychological Studies
Alcoholism is a common occurrence. According to the National Association for Children of Alcoholics (1998), there are approximately 76 million Americans who have had a family member with an alcohol problem. Adult children of alcoholics (ACoAs) were studied to compare the differences between resiliency scores with adult children of non-alcoholics (NACoAs). We found that p = .022, indicating there was a significant difference among ACoAs and NACoAs. We found that NCoAs had a higher resiliency score than NACoAs. We also looked at differences in resiliency scores among the ACoAs who had a same gendered alcoholic parent and an opposite gendered …
Prevalence Of Psychopathology Among Syrian Refugees And Future Outlook, Ahmad Hassan, Wassim Hassan, Ismail El Hailouch
Prevalence Of Psychopathology Among Syrian Refugees And Future Outlook, Ahmad Hassan, Wassim Hassan, Ismail El Hailouch
Modern Psychological Studies
Nearly one millions Syrian refugees registered by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) currently reside in Lebanon, making it the country hosting the highest number of Syrian refugees in the Middle Eastern region (ILO Employment Profile, 2014). While there are geographical differences in the levels of security, access to medical aid and relief, and socio-economic conditions that the refugees experience depending on where they settle, the vast majority of Syrian refugees are living in tragic conditions. The population of Lebanon has increased by around 25% since the advent of the Syrian civil war in March of 2011, putting …
Racial Bias In Offender Identification, Nasya Hammond-Watson, Verneda P. Hamm Baugh
Racial Bias In Offender Identification, Nasya Hammond-Watson, Verneda P. Hamm Baugh
Modern Psychological Studies
This study was examined whether there is a bias to attribute criminal activities more to one race than another. Participants read scenarios of different crimes (bank robbery, fraud, and murder) and rated the likelihood that the perpetrator of each crime was Black, White, or Hispanic. As anticipated, the perpetrators were overwhelmingly identified as male. Results also found a strong interaction between race of perpetrator and type of crime. Blacks were more likely identified as the perpetrator of the violent crimes of murder and bank robbery and Whites were more likely identified as the perpetrator of the non-violent crime, fraud. These …