Psychology Commons^™

Can Developmental Trauma Disorder Be Distinguished From Posttraumatic Stress Disorder? A Symptom-Level Person-Centred Empirical Approach, Julian D. Ford, Ruby Charak, Thanos Karatzias, Mark Shevlin, Joseph Spinazzola

Psychological Science Faculty Publications and Presentations

Background:

Developmental Trauma Disorder (DTD) is a proposed childhood psychiatric diagnosis for psychopathological and developmental sequela of victimization and attachment trauma extending beyond posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Objective:

To determine whether a sub-group of trauma-impacted children is characterized by symptoms of DTD that extend beyond, or co-occur with, the symptoms of PTSD.

Method:

Person-centred Latent Class Analyses (LCA) were done with data from 507 children (ages 7–18 years, (M = 12.11, SD = 2/92); 49% female) referred to the study by mental health or paediatric clinicians.

Results:

A four class solution was optimal (LMR = 398.264, p < .001; Entropy = .93): (1) combined DTD + PTSD (n = …

A Comparison Of Methods To Harmonize Cortical Thickness Measurements Across Scanners And Sites, Delin Sun, Gopalkumar Rakesh, Courtney C. Haswell, Mark Logue, C. Lexi Baird, Erin N. O'Learly, Andrew S. Cotton, Hong Xie, Marijo Tamburrino, Tian Chen, Emily L. Dennis, Neda Jahanshad, Lauren Salminen, Sophia I. Thomopoulos, Faisal Rashid, Christopher R.K. Ching, Saskia B.J. Koch, Jessie L. Frijling, Laura Nawijn, Mirjam Van Zuiden, Xi Zhu, Benjamin Suarez-Jimenez, Anika Sierk, Henrik Walter, Antje Manthey, Jennifer S. Stevens, Negar Fani, Sanne J.H. Van Rooij, Murray Stein, Jessica A. Bomyea, Inga K. Koerte, Kyle Choi, Steven J.A. Van Der Werff, Robert R.J.M. Vermeiren, Julia Herzog, Lauren A. M. Lebois, Justin T. Baker, Elizabeth A. Olson, Thomas Straube, Mayuresh S. Korgaonkar, Elpiniki Andrew, Ye Zhu, Gen Li, Jonathan Ipser, Anna R. Hudson, Matthew Peverill, Kelly Sambrook, Evan Gordon, Lee A. Baugh, Gina L. Forster, Raluca M. Simons, Jeffrey S. Simons, Vincent A. Magnotta, Adi Maron-Katz, Stefan Du Plessis, Seth Disner, Nicholas Davenport, Daniel W. Grupe, Jack B. Nitschke, Terri A. Deroon-Cassini, Jacklynn M. Fitzgerald, John H. Krystal, Ifat Levy, Miranda Olff, Dick J. Veltman, Li Wang, Yuval Neria, Michael D. De Bellis, Tanja Jovanovic, Judith K. Daniels, Martha E. Shenton, Nic J.A. Van De Wee, Christian Schmahl, Milissa L. Kaufman, Isabelle M. Rosso, Scott R. Sponheim, David Hofmann, Richard A. Bryant, Kelene A. Fercho, Dan J. Stein, Sven C. Mueller, Bobak Hosseini, K. Luan Phan, Katie A. Mclaughlin, Richard J. Davidson, Christine L. Larson, Geoffrey May, Steven M. Nelson, Chadi G. Abdallah, Hassaan Gomaa, Amit Etkin, Soraya Seedat, Ilan Harpaz-Rotem, Israel Liberzon, Theo G.M. Van Erp, Yann Quidé, Xin Wang, Paul M. Thompson, Rajendra A. Morey

Psychology Faculty Research and Publications

Results of neuroimaging datasets aggregated from multiple sites may be biased by site-specific profiles in participants’ demographic and clinical characteristics, as well as MRI acquisition protocols and scanning platforms. We compared the impact of four different harmonization methods on results obtained from analyses of cortical thickness data: (1) linear mixed-effects model (LME) that models site-specific random intercepts (LMEINT), (2) LME that models both site-specific random intercepts and age-related random slopes (LMEINT+SLP), (3) ComBat, and (4) ComBat with a generalized additive model (ComBat-GAM). Our test case for comparing harmonization methods was cortical thickness data aggregated from 29 sites, which included 1,340 …

First Responder Coping And Its Impact On Resilience, Ptsd Symptomology, And Hypervigilance, Bianca Bullock

Dissertations

The present study investigated coping strategies utilized by first responders and how those strategies relate to resilience, PTSD symptomology, and hypervigilance. The purpose of this study is to help provide more detailed information as to how first responders’ coping impacts their overall functioning. First responders (N = 181), including law enforcement officers, firefighters, paramedics, and emergency medical technicians, completed online surveys measuring whether engaged or disengaged coping strategies were used to manage stressful situations. Self-perceived resilience, PTSD symptoms, and hypervigilance were also measured. A one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance was performed to test the relationships between engaged versus disengaged …

Remodeling Of The Cortical Structure Connectome In Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Results From The Enigma-Pgc Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Consortium, Jacklynn M. Fitzgerald

Psychology Faculty Research and Publications

Background

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is accompanied by disrupted cortical neuroanatomy. We investigated alteration in covariance of structural networks associated with PTSD in regions that demonstrate the case-control differences in cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA).

Methods

Neuroimaging and clinical data were aggregated from 29 research sites in >1300 PTSD cases and >2000 trauma-exposed control subjects (ages 6.2-85.2 years) by the ENIGMA-PGC (Enhancing Neuro Imaging Genetics through Meta Analysis-Psychiatric Genomics Consortium) PTSD working group. Cortical regions in the network were rank ordered by the effect size of PTSD-related cortical differences in CT and SA. The top-n (n …

A Moderated Mediation Model Of Gender, Posttraumatic Cognitions, And Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms After Military Sexual Assault, Hallie S. Tannahill

All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023

Military sexual assault (MSA) is associated with the greatest risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and PTSD severity beyond other trauma types. Sexual revictimization further increases this risk and severity. However, not all who experience MSA revictimization develop PTSD. This suggests there may be a key mechanism that explains the association between MSA and PTSD. Posttraumatic cognitions (PTC), which include an overall domain and subdomains of self, world, and self-blame, may be one such mechanism between MSA and PTSD, although this link has not yet been examined in the context of MSA revictimization. Further, literature suggests that men and women …

Gender And Ptsd: An Examination Of Socialized Masculinity As Moderator Of Ptsd Symptom Development, Kirsten Schmidt

Theses and Dissertations

This study seeks to explain observed gender differences in PTSD risk and protective factors and subsequent PTSD symptoms by use of a Masculine Heuristic moderator variable. Drawing from heuristic and gender role theories, this study utilizes a sample of male and female trauma survivors to examine the interaction between a Masculine Heuristic style and trauma exposure in the development of PTSD symptoms. Structural Equation Modeling and moderation analysis were used to explore these constructs. Results are discussed and incorporated into current literature, while limitations of the current study and suggestions for future research are explored.

Distress Tolerance: Prospective Associations With Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Outcomes In Adults With Posttraumatic Stress And Substance Use Disorders, Anka A Vujanovic, Heather E Webber, Shelby J Mcgrew, Charles E Green, Scott D Lane, Joy M Schmitz

Student and Faculty Publications

Distress tolerance (DT; perceived or actual ability to tolerate aversive physical or emotional states) is related to both posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and substance use disorders (SUD). This investigation evaluates self-report and behavioral measures of DT as potential predictors of PTSD and SUD cognitive-behavioral therapy outcomes. Participants included 41 treatment-seeking adults (53.7% women; 73.2% African American; Mage= 44.90, SD = 9.68) who met at least four symptoms of DSM-5 PTSD and DSM-IV substance dependence, assessed via structured interviews. At baseline (pre-treatment), participants completed the Distress Tolerance Scale (DTS), Mirror-Tracing Persistence Task (MTPT), Breath Holding task, and Paced Auditory …

The Impact Of Trauma Subtypes On Ptsd Severity In Syrian Child And Adolescent Refugees, Liza Hinchey, Lana Grasser, Bassem Saad, Kathleen Gorski, Arash Javanbakht, May Chammaa

Medical Student Research Symposium

Background:

Child and adolescent refugee populations are at increased risk for psychiatric disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anxiety. Recent studies have demonstrated different symptomatology based on the type(s) of traumatic events experienced. Cluster analyses based on the Life Events Checklist (LEC) indicate three trauma subtypes: accidental/injury, victimization, and predominant death threat. Extending this line of research from adults to youth may lead to better understanding of the unique impacts of trauma subtypes on symptoms for improved prediction of risk and resilience.

Methods:

Refugee participants were recruited within 1 month of their resettlement in the U.S. Data used were …

Psychological Trauma Alters T-Lymphocyte Inflammation And Redox Through Sympathetic Mechanisms, Safwan K. Elkhatib

Theses & Dissertations

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a devastating psychiatric disorder characterized by distinctive symptom clusters, including intrusive memories (i.e., flashbacks), avoidance of related stimuli, affective changes, and hyperarousal. Strikingly, patients with PTSD face a significantly increased risk for a number of inflammation-driven pathologies, ranging from cardiovascular to autoimmune disease. Yet, the exact etiology of this increased risk remains unknown. The immune system is known to be strongly influenced by the sympathetic nervous system, and sympathetic overactivity is a hallmark of PTSD. Lymphoid organs, such as the spleen, are richly innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers which terminate near adaptive immune …

The Necessity Of Trauma-Focused Curricula In Mental Health Graduate Programs: Advocating For Comprehensive Trauma Etiology And Treatment Education With Proposed Course Outline, Aaron S. Gillespie

Graduate School of Professional Psychology: Doctoral Papers and Masters Projects

During the past four decades, it has become increasingly clear how prevalent trauma, polytrauma and co-morbid trauma-related disorders are within our shared, global communities. A growing body of research continues to uncover the mind-boggling impact these overwhelming experiences have on individuals, their families, and the communities that support them, including mental health professionals. It behooves us as allied mental healthcare providers to learn what trauma is, how it may affect the individual across the lifespan, as well as how to effectively identify and treat the trauma-related symptoms our clients present with. However, despite a proliferation of research demonstrating the growing …

Kindness In The Bardo: Empathy As A Catalyst For Healing In Victims Of Dissociation, Julia Dorothea Chopelas

Criterion: A Journal of Literary Criticism

In George Saunders’ Lincoln in the Bardo, a host of undead characters find themselves in a spiritual limbo based on the bardo. Although they won’t admit it to themselves, Roger Bevins III and Hans Vollman are most certainly dead. Despite their supernatural makeup as ghosts, Bevins and Vollman bear strong psychological resonance with the living: they are human, heartbroken, and lost. For the ghosts of Oak Hills Cemetery, the inefficient coping mechanism of dissociation perpetuates their afterlife imprisonment in the bardo. Bevins and Vollman suffer from a variety of dissociative symptoms, their minds’ psychological defense against the trauma that has …

The Effect Of Creative Art Therapy On Trauma Victims Suffering From Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Sophia Swiatek

Senior Honors Theses

When confronted with a traumatic situation, individuals’ brains often face difficulty in storing and/or processing such experiences. Unfortunately, this presents challenges for accessing those memories later in life, especially if the individuals are solely using speech-based techniques to do so. This fact has spurred research on whether various other therapeutic techniques, such as Creative Art Therapy (CAT), can produce better results in improving the mental health of a trauma victim suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). This study attempts to uncover whether age, gender, and/or type of therapy play a significant role in the improvement of CAT clients’ mental health …

Evaluation Of Hippocampal Allostatic Load-Associated Factors In Animal Models Of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Relevance To Human Ptsd, Dennis Parker Kelley

LSU Doctoral Dissertations

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with elevated allostatic load, nearly double the risk for metabolic syndrome, reduced hippocampal volume, and contextual memory processing deficits. Emerging evidence suggests that these stress effects may predispose individuals to the development of PTSD, and there is a known relationship between chronic stress and metabolic dysfunction. In this work, we utilized two rat models of PTSD to explore these connections. We used an acute predator odor stressor to investigate the relationship between PTSD-like behaviors and mitochondrial dysfunction in the hippocampus of rats, and we observed that conditioned place avoidance was associated with reduced mitochondrial …

Pathways From Child Maltreatment To Proactive And Reactive Aggression: The Role Of Post-Traumatic Stress Symptom Clusters, Elizabeth M. Mcrae, Laura Stoppelbein, Sarah E. O'Kelley, Paula K. Fite, Shana B. Smith

Research, Publications & Creative Work

Objective: Childhood aggression is related to a myriad of negative concurrent and long-term outcomes. To mitigate the risks associated with childhood aggression, it is important to understand risk factors that might predispose one to aggressive behaviors. One risk factor commonly associated with aggression is the experience of child maltreatment. A common outcome associated with child maltreatment is the development of post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). Several prevailing theoretical models of both post-traumatic stress and aggression indicate that these constructs have similar underlying cognitive, behavioral, and emotional mechanisms. Therefore, the present study examined the relations between and among child maltreatment, PTSS clusters, …

Nonjudgmental Acceptance: Associations With Substance-Related Cue Reactivity In Adults With Substance Use Disorders And Posttraumatic Stress, Anka A Vujanovic, Heather E Webber, Margaret C Wardle, Charles E Green, Scott D Lane, Joy M Schmitz

Student and Faculty Publications

The present investigation examined the predictive utility of nonjudgmental acceptance, a facet of mindfulness defined as the ability to remain aware and nonevaluative about internal experience, in terms of substance-related cue reactivity among adults with substance use disorders (SUD) and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptomatology. We hypothesized that higher nonjudgmental acceptance, indexed via self-report, would predict higher levels of self-reported control over oneself and safety 'in the moment', broadly, and lower levels of substance-related craving in response to substance script cues. Effects were expected after subtracting reactivity to neutral script cues from each outcome rating. PTS severity was included as a …

Is Ego Strength A Trait That Contributes To Trauma Resilience?, Matt Hiltebrand,

Doctor of Psychology (PsyD)

Given the ubiquitous experience of trauma among first responders, there is a critical need to understand the traits that contribute to resilience in experiencing traumatic events. Strength of identity is associated with resilience in several meaningful life events including negative peer review, adjustment to significant change, and recovering from depression or anxiety (Kim & Choi, 2013). There is a scarcity of research that has examined ego strength as a trait that contributes to trauma resilience. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between ego strength and the experience of trauma among veteran first responders (including, paramedics, firefighters, …

The Experience Of Providing Direct Care To Children Victims Of Boko Haram Insurgencies In Nigeria, Felicia Etuke

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

The insurgency of terrorism leaves lasting economic, social, academics, spiritual, religious, and psychological effects, but often children’s psychological welfare is neglected in the aftermath of terrorist attacks. Boko Haram’s presence in Nigeria has left many children orphaned, displaced, and impoverished. Thus, there is a need to highlight the importance of the role that care providers play in securing the psychological health of the child victims of Boko Haram insurgency. This qualitative, phenomenological study explored the experiences of care providers to the child victims of Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. Compassion fatigue theory was used as a theoretical framework for the …

Dancing The Storm: Neurobiological Correlates Of Trauma-Related Psychopathology In Youth Resettled As Refugees, And The Efficacy Of Creative Arts And Movement Therapies To Address Trauma-Related Psychopathology, Lana Ruvolo Grasser

Wayne State University Dissertations

Exposure to stress and trauma activates key adaptive pathways, including the sympathetic adrenomedullary system and the immune system, which can result in long-term health impacts of trauma especially when experienced during sensitive developmental periods. Alterations in these systems are measurable through non-invasive methods including skin conductance response (SCR), fear potentiated startle (FPS), and inflammation. Research regarding the impact of trauma, and more specifically posttraumatic stress disorder, has primarily focused on adults, and there is a paucity of neurobiological research in displaced populations—like refugees—who may experience higher rates of trauma exposure and related psychopathology. The present study measured SCR to a …

Effects Of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder For U.S. Women Veterans, Bobbi N. L. Mount, Phd

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived postdeployment experiences of U.S. women veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their perception of the impact their diagnosis had on their immediate families. The theoretical framework was Heider’s causal attribution theory. The first two research questions directly addressed the purpose of the study, and the third research question addressed each participant’s experience with accessing mental healthcare services. NVivo was used to transcribe, code, and analyze data derived from semistructured interviews with six U.S. women veterans who were diagnosed with PTSD by a licensed mental health professional postdeployment. …

Impact Of Trauma On Job Satisfaction And Turnover Intention Among Emergency Dispatchers, Sherrie Johnston

Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies

Emergency dispatchers in the United States are exposed to traumatic events, which may lead to a staffing shortage. Though it is well-established that decreased job satisfaction increases turnover intentions, little research investigates whether trauma impacts these constructs. Therefore, this quantitative non-experimental study was focused on whether education was a protective factor against posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and whether trauma moderated the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intention among emergency dispatchers. The relationship between vicarious trauma (VT) and PTSD among dispatchers was examined, and whether it is possible to predict PTSD among dispatchers based on VT, education level, and job …

History, Cognition And Nostromo: Conrad’S Explorations Of Torture, Trauma, And The Human Rage For Order, Richard Ruppel

English Faculty Articles and Research

Focusing on Joseph Conrad’s Nostromo, this essay historicizes the treatment of what we now call post-traumatic stress disorder, demonstrating how Conrad anticipated our current understanding and treatment of the illness. The second part of the essay addresses Nostromo’s treatment of historiography. Part three is concerned with epistemology and the relationship between neurological discoveries concerning the gap between perception and consciousness, relating those discoveries to Conrad’s use of delayed decoding.

Neural Correlates And Neuroanatomy Of Juvenile And Adult Contextual Fear Memory Retention, Natalie Odynocki

Legacy Theses & Dissertations (2009 - 2024)

AbstractFear is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism that allows an organism to discern potential harm and act accordingly by engaging in defensive behaviors. While fear is an adaptive response, dysregulation of fear by means of a traumatic event can lead to psychiatric conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Animal research using rodents in Pavlovian context fear conditioning experiments allows for the ability to study the underlying neural circuitry of threat-appropriate and aberrant fear learning and memory that may contribute to PTSD. However, despite reports that women are more than two times more likely to develop PTSD compared to men, the …

Signs In Sophocles: Modern Approaches To Ptsd In The Ajax, Charlotte Simon

Honors Theses

This project explores the relationship between ancient Greek tragedy and modern psychology, specifically focusing on instances of PTSD, both through the descriptions of symptoms and the cultural reaction to such trauma responses in both ancient and modern sources. The case study from ancient Greece is Sophocles’ play, Ajax, a dramatic depiction of a post-PTSD soldier who has a mental break and is faced with either living with what he has done or committing suicide. The primary objective of this project is to illustrate what modern psychological theory can reveal about the portrayal of PTSD in Greek tragedy and therefore also …

Can Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Be A Viable Treatment Option For Law Enforcement Officers With Ptsd?, Megan Rinderer

Graduate School of Professional Psychology: Doctoral Papers and Masters Projects

Law enforcement officers (LEO) are more likely to experience symptoms of PTSD when compared to the general population yet are less likely to seek mental health treatment (Jetelina et al., 2020). Given that LEO face unique occupational stressors and repeated exposure to traumatic events, treatment for PTSD among law enforcement populations poses unique challenges for clinicians. The combination of these variables precludes officers from seeking and receiving mental health services. Research regarding the efficacy of Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ) as a psychotherapeutic intervention is limited. To date, no studies have examined the use of BJJ to mitigate symptoms of PTSD …

Susceptibility And The Stockholm Syndrome, Karina S. Cabrera

Honors Undergraduate Theses

This thesis intends to explore the relationship between three specific types of abuse and their susceptibility to developing Stockholm syndrome. Stockholm syndrome is the psychological phenomenon of a victim empathizing with their abuser. It can occur under various types of abuse, such as captivity, domestic violence with a partner, and child sexual abuse. A thorough literature review was conducted on the topic to determine which type of abuse makes a person more susceptible to developing the syndrome. It was concluded that the circumstances involved in child sexual abuse make a victim more inclined to sympathize with their abuser. By understanding …

A Model Of Childhood Maltreatment, Ptsd Symptoms, Reinforcement Sensitivity, And Alcohol Outcomes In Young Adults, Logan E. Welker

Dissertations and Theses

Alcohol use poses a significant public health concern, particularly among young adults, 35% of whom report binge drinking (SAMHSA, 2019). Childhood maltreatment is reported by over 50% of young adults (Maples et al., 2014) which places individuals at a greater risk of problematic drinking (Goldstein et al., 2010). Developmental traumatology theory posits that 1) maltreatment-related psychobiological changes are responsible for the increased risk of dysfunctional alcohol use in maltreated individuals and 2) PTSD may be a good indicator of this psychobiological change (De Bellis, 2002). PTSD symptoms have mediated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and alcohol outcomes in previous studies …

A Cluster Analytic Approach To Examining The Role Of Cortisol In The Development Of Post-Traumatic Stress And Dysphoria In Adult Traumatic Injury Survivors, Devi Jayan, Terri A Deroon-Cassini, Garrett Sauber, Cecilia J. Hillard, Jacklynn M. Fitzgerald

Psychology Faculty Research and Publications

Identification of specific risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) versus depression after trauma has been challenging, in part due to the high comorbidity of these disorders. As exposure to trauma triggers activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis, examining atypical stress responses via HPA-axis hormones, namely cortisol, may help in the delineation of these disorders. Indeed, extant research demonstrates that, following stress, individuals with chronic PTSD exhibit hypocortisolism (e.g., lower cortisol response than controls), while those with chronic depression exhibit hypercortisolism (e.g., higher response than controls). Less is known about the role of cortisol and these seemingly disparate profiles immediately following …

The Merits Of Reporting Battered Woman Syndrome In South Asian Women, Annyssa Karran

Honors Undergraduate Theses

This paper’s focus on South Asian and Asian-American women in relation to Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS) originates from a limited amount of research on the self-helping behaviors of these women–especially those who have immigrated from the countries of Nepal, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Bhutan–as compared to other cultures (Sripada, 2020). The current literature surrounding BWS identifies lesser reporting on South Asian and Asian-American women with ethnic backgrounds from these regions (Kasturirangan, 2004). A journal by Yoshioka (2005) proposes that we consider the “world view” or intersectionality when considering domestic violence and to which many women are restricted as a result …

Efficacy And Possible Mechanisms Of Change In Written Exposure Therapy In Undergraduates With Ptss: A Randomized Trial Of Wet Compared To Trauma-Focused Expressive Writing, Robyn Alyssa Ellis

Graduate Research Theses & Dissertations

Trauma exposure is common, with a 90% lifetime endorsement rate in adults in the United States and a majority of first year students reporting exposure to trauma prior to college. A minority of individuals go on to develop PTSD, with higher rates on college campuses (9-12.4%) than lifetime estimates (7%). Existing evidence-based practices for PTSD have demonstrated efficacy in reducing PTSD symptoms (PTSS), but critiques of evidence-based psychotherapies (EBPs) for PTSD include high levels of drop-out and barriers to access. Written exposure therapy (WET) is a brief promising intervention for PTSS with a growing literature of evidence suggesting efficacy with …

Tripping Over Trauma: A Proposal Of Psilocybin-Assisted Therapy For Comorbid Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder And Depression, Liam Paul Gomez

Senior Projects Spring 2022

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a widespread, often debilitating affliction that is only partially attenuated by current first-line treatment despite its heightened prominence in the sociopolitical arena. Since individuals with PTSD also experience high rates of depression comorbidity and resultant suicidality, it is essential that treatment is more holistically effective. A possible novel intervention, psilocybin-assisted therapy, has shown promising results for the improvement of depression, addiction, and other disorders; prospectively, when administered with non-directive therapy, it could prove to be an efficacious intervention for PTSD with comorbid depression. In the proposed study, there will be two participant groupings: the control …