Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons™
Open Access. Powered by Scholars. Published by Universities.®
- Keyword
-
- Singapore (6)
- China (5)
- India (3)
- Trust (3)
- Research and development (2)
-
- ;migration (1)
- Affiliation Bias (1)
- Affordable homeownership policy (1)
- Air transportation (1)
- Alliances (1)
- Analyst Coverage (1)
- Analysts (1)
- Applications (1)
- Assessment centres (1)
- Automation (1)
- Autoregressive conditional duration (1)
- Bank loans (1)
- Best practices (1)
- Biased Research (1)
- Book building (1)
- Business planning (1)
- CEOs (1)
- Capital structure (1)
- Case study (1)
- Classical test theory (1)
- Cognitive ability tests (1)
- Commitment (1)
- Communication management (1)
- Conflicts of Interest (1)
- Confucian society (1)
- Publication
- Publication Type
Articles 1 - 30 of 52
Full-Text Articles in Social and Behavioral Sciences
Mediating The Media: A Journalist-Centric Model In Managing The Media By Corporate Communication Practitioners, Augustine Pang
Mediating The Media: A Journalist-Centric Model In Managing The Media By Corporate Communication Practitioners, Augustine Pang
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Purpose: The prevailing challenge faced by practitioners is to conduct effective media relations, especially with the proliferation of diverse media platforms both online and offline. For such a predominant and critical function, a systematic approach needs to be offered. This paper aims to address these issues. Design/methodology/approach: A new model is developed, drawing on insights from corporate communications and journalism literature. Findings: This model identifies two sets of influences that practitioners should seek to understand. The internal influences include journalist mindsets, journalist routines, and newsroom routines. The external influences include extra-media forces and media ideology. Research limitations/implications: At this juncture, …
Impact Of Culture On ‘Partner Selection Criteria’ In East Asian International Joint Ventures, Ravinder K. Zutshi, Wee Liang Tan
Impact Of Culture On ‘Partner Selection Criteria’ In East Asian International Joint Ventures, Ravinder K. Zutshi, Wee Liang Tan
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Selecting the right partner is important for the success of alliances and joint ventures. For international joint ventures (IJVs) from diverse cultures the partner selection process can become complicated. Prior studies have investigated the alliances and joint ventures to develop a set of objective criteria for evaluating potential partners. This paper reports the study of IJVs formed by Singapore firms in Peoples Republic of China and India. The intent was to develop a methodology for identifying partner selection criteria in a cross-cultural setting. The findings reveal that the partner selection process follows a different logic in Confucian societies. Trust has …
Tunneling Through Intercorporate Loans: The China Experience, Guohua Jiang, Charles M. C. Lee, Heng Yue
Tunneling Through Intercorporate Loans: The China Experience, Guohua Jiang, Charles M. C. Lee, Heng Yue
Research Collection School of Accountancy
This study investigates a particularly brazen form of corporate abuse, in which controlling shareholders use intercorporate loans to siphon billions of RMB from hundreds of Chinese listed companies during the 1996 to 2006 period. We document the nature and extent of these transactions, evaluate their economic consequences, examine factors that affect their cross-sectional severity, and report on the mitigating roles of auditors, institutional investors, and regulators. Collectively, our findings shed light on the severity of the minority shareholder expropriation problem in China, as well as the relative efficacy of various legal and extra-legal governance mechanisms in that country.
Dating The Timeline Of Financial Bubbles During The Subprime Crisis, Peter C. B. Phillips, Jun Yu
Dating The Timeline Of Financial Bubbles During The Subprime Crisis, Peter C. B. Phillips, Jun Yu
Research Collection School Of Economics
A new recursive regression methodology is introduced to analyze the bubble characteristics of various financial time series during the subprime crisis. The methods modify a technique proposed in Phillips, Wu, and Yu (2011) and provide a technology for identifying bubble behavior with consistent dating of their origination and collapse. The tests serve as an early warning diagnostic of bubble activity and a new procedure is introduced for testing bubble migration across markets. Three relevant financial series are investigated, including a financial asset price (a house price index), a commodity price (the crude oil price), and one bond price (the spread …
Brokerage Industry Self-Regulation: The Case Of Analysts’ Background Disclosures, Lawrence Brown, Artur Hugon, Hai Lu
Brokerage Industry Self-Regulation: The Case Of Analysts’ Background Disclosures, Lawrence Brown, Artur Hugon, Hai Lu
Research Collection School Of Accountancy
We evaluate an industry disclosure initiative designed to inform investors, the practice of providing information regarding investment professionals’ backgrounds. Implicit in the motivation for this initiative is the presumed relevance of background information to investors seeking investment professionals’ guidance. We find that analysts with disclosure incidents forecast less accurately than a matched sample of analysts without such disclosures, and that the market views disclosed analysts’ earnings forecasts as less credible than those of the matched sample. Our evidence is consistent with disclosures signaling a persistent analyst characteristic. We conclude that analyst backgrounds are informative regarding both the accuracy and credibility …
Affordable Homeownership Policy: Implications For Housing Markets, Sock Yong Phang
Affordable Homeownership Policy: Implications For Housing Markets, Sock Yong Phang
Research Collection School Of Economics
Affordable homeownership is a policy that is often accorded a great deal of policy attention by governments of many countries. In this paper, we examine the market implications of setting a housing price to income ratio target for a market segment by the government. The policy requires active intervention by the government with regard to the targeted sector. We use a simple model of the housing market with a homeownership affordability target to derive the market implications of such targets. In the presence of uncertainty and resource constraints, the objective of homeownership affordability is achieved for the targeted group at …
Personality Scale Validities Increase Throughout Medical School, Filip Lievens, Deniz S. Ones, Stephan Dilchert
Personality Scale Validities Increase Throughout Medical School, Filip Lievens, Deniz S. Ones, Stephan Dilchert
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Admissions and personnel decisions rely on stable predictor-criterion relationships. The authors studied the validity of Big Five personality factors and their facets for predicting academic performance in medical school across multiple years, investigating whether criterion-related validities change over time. In this longitudinal investigation, an entire European country's 1997 cohort of medical students was studied throughout their medical school career (Year 1, N = 627; Year 7, N = 306). Over time, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness factor and facet scale scores showed increases in operational validity for predicting grade point averages. Although there may not be any advantages to being open …
Social Networks, Personal Values, And Creativity: Evidence For Curvilinear And Interaction Effects, Jing Zhou, Shung Jae Shin, Daniel J. Brass, Jaepil Choi, Zhi-Xue Zhang
Social Networks, Personal Values, And Creativity: Evidence For Curvilinear And Interaction Effects, Jing Zhou, Shung Jae Shin, Daniel J. Brass, Jaepil Choi, Zhi-Xue Zhang
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Taking an interactional perspective on creativity, the authors examined the influence of social networks and conformity value on employees' creativity. They theorized and found a curvilinear relationship between number of weak ties and creativity such that employees exhibited greater creativity when their number of weak ties was at intermediate levels rather than at lower or higher levels. In addition, employees' conformity value moderated the curvilinear relationship between number of weak ties and creativity such that employees exhibited greater creativity at intermediate levels of number of weak ties when conformity was low than when it was high. A proper match between …
Bayesian Analysis Of Structural Credit Risk Models With Microstructure Noises, Shirley J. Huang, Jun Yu
Bayesian Analysis Of Structural Credit Risk Models With Microstructure Noises, Shirley J. Huang, Jun Yu
Research Collection School Of Economics
In this paper a Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) technique is developed for the Bayesian analysis of structural credit risk models with microstructure noises. The technique is based on the general Bayesian approach with posterior computations performed by Gibbs sampling. Simulations from the Markov chain, whose stationary distribution converges to the posterior distribution, enable exact ¯nite sample inferences of model parameters. The exact inferences can easily be extended to latent state variables and any nonlinear transformation of state variables and parameters, facilitating practical credit risk applications. In addition, the comparison of alternative models can be based on deviance information criterion …
Wissen Und Entwicklung In Singapur: Trends Und Thesen / Knowledge And Development In Singapore: Trends And Propositions, Thomas Menkhoff, Solvay Gerke, Hans-Dieter Evers, Yue-Wah Chay
Wissen Und Entwicklung In Singapur: Trends Und Thesen / Knowledge And Development In Singapore: Trends And Propositions, Thomas Menkhoff, Solvay Gerke, Hans-Dieter Evers, Yue-Wah Chay
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
This paper addresses the question how knowledge is used to benefit the economic development of Singapore. The country has followed strict science policies to establish knowledge governance regimes for a knowledge-based economy. On the basis of empirical studies the authors show, how cultural diversity and social capital impact on the ability to develop an epistemic culture of knowledge sharing and ultimately an innovative knowledge-based economy.
Emotional Labor Demands, Wages And Gender: A Within-Person, Between-Jobs Study, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Theresa M. Glomb
Emotional Labor Demands, Wages And Gender: A Within-Person, Between-Jobs Study, Devasheesh P. Bhave, Theresa M. Glomb
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Although research suggests the important role of gender in emotional labour, its effect on the relationship between emotional labour demands and wages has not been examined explicitly. The current study investigates this relationship by testing hypotheses derived from theories of vocational choice and labour market supply and demand. Hypotheses are tested using a unique within-person, between-jobs longitudinal dataset with information on two jobs for each worker in a national sample of U.S. workers (N=5,488). After controlling for relevant variables related to wages, results suggest men incur wage penalties of approximately 6% when moving to occupations with higher emotional labour demands. …
The Indian Mystique, Nirmalya Kumar
The Indian Mystique, Nirmalya Kumar
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
The rise of global business means that Western companies will increasingly encounter Indians as customers, competitors and collaborators. The author profiles how best to collaborate with Indian business leaders.
Managing A Nation's Image During Crisis: A Study Of The Chinese Government's Image Repair Efforts In The “Made In China” Controversy, Peijuan Cai, Lee Pei Ting, Augustine Pang
Managing A Nation's Image During Crisis: A Study Of The Chinese Government's Image Repair Efforts In The “Made In China” Controversy, Peijuan Cai, Lee Pei Ting, Augustine Pang
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
The image of a nation is crucial in the conduct of international relations (Wang, J. (2006). Managing national reputation and international relations in the global era: Public diplomacy revisited. Public Relations Review, 32, 91–96). A favorable image plays a critical role in asserting one's influence (Benoit, W. L., & Brinson, S. L. (1994). AT&T: “Apologies are not enough”. Communication Quarterly, 42, 75–88; Wang, J. (2006). Managing national reputation and international relations in the global era: Public diplomacy revisited. Public Relations Review, 32, 91–96). Often, strategic communication tools like public relations and media diplomacy are used to enhance a nation's image …
Evaluating Straddle Carrier Deployment Policies: A Simulation Study For The Piraeus Container Terminal, Eleni Hadjiconstantinou, Nang Laik Ma
Evaluating Straddle Carrier Deployment Policies: A Simulation Study For The Piraeus Container Terminal, Eleni Hadjiconstantinou, Nang Laik Ma
Research Collection School Of Computing and Information Systems
Most container terminals in the world today are operating up to their capacities. In this paper, we have developed a decision support system to optimise yard operations by considering all container flows (import, export and transshipment) through the yard with the view to improving the terminal performance and efficiency. In another paper, we proposed an optimisation model that determines optimal container locations and straddle carrier (SC) movements with the objective of minimising the overall storage and handling cost of containers. In this paper, a discrete event simulation tool for container terminal operations has been developed with three objectives: (i) to …
Towards A Single European Sky, Yael Gruksha-Cockayne, Bert De Reyck
Towards A Single European Sky, Yael Gruksha-Cockayne, Bert De Reyck
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
We describe an integrated decision-making framework and model that we developed to aid EUROCONTROL, the European air traffic management organization, in its vital role of constructing a single unified European sky. Combining multicriteria decision analysis with large-scale optimization methods, such as integer programming and column generation using branch and price, our model facilitates the process by which the numerous European aviation stakeholders evaluate and select technological enhancements to the European air traffic management system. We consider multiple objectives and potential disagreements by stakeholders regarding the impact of proposed system enhancements and allow for different priorities for each key performance area. …
A Re-Examination Of China's Share Issue Privatization, Guohua Jiang, Heng Yue, Longkai Zhao
A Re-Examination Of China's Share Issue Privatization, Guohua Jiang, Heng Yue, Longkai Zhao
Research Collection School Of Accountancy
Previous studies show that in contrast to evidence that share issue privatization (SIP) in most other countries have improved firm profitability, China's SIP of the 1990s had no such effect. We argue that the main reason for the failure of China's SIP is likely to have been the weak institutional environment in place at that time. We examine China's SIP in a more recent period in which the institutional environment was greatly improved. Using a matching sample method, we find that SIP firms continued to experience negative post-SIP profitability changes in our sample period. However, their performance decline was significantly …
Salespeople's Renqing Orientation, Self-Esteem, And Selling Behaviors: An Empirical Study In Taiwan, Ming-Hong Tsai, Shu-Cheng Steve Chi, Hsia-Hua Hu
Salespeople's Renqing Orientation, Self-Esteem, And Selling Behaviors: An Empirical Study In Taiwan, Ming-Hong Tsai, Shu-Cheng Steve Chi, Hsia-Hua Hu
Research Collection School of Social Sciences
The purpose of this study was to investigate how salespeople's renqing orientation and self-esteem jointly affect their selling behavior.Data were obtained from a survey of salespeople from 17 pharmaceutical and consumer-goods companies in Taiwan (n = 216).Salespeople's renqing orientation (i.e., their propensity to adhere to the accepted norm of reciprocity) compensates the negative effect of self-esteem on their selling behaviors, such as adaptive selling and hard work.Our study results underscore the critical role of the character trait of renqing orientation in a culture emphasizing a norm of reciprocity. Therefore, it would be useful to consider a strategy of recruiting salespeople …
Exporting Expertise: Singapore’S Gambits In The Middle East, Caroline Yeoh, Wilfred Pow Ngee How
Exporting Expertise: Singapore’S Gambits In The Middle East, Caroline Yeoh, Wilfred Pow Ngee How
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Singapore’s regionalization stratagem points increasingly towards the influence of both the sociopolitical environment and the economics of competition, in a business environment with an ever-growing number of competitors; to the extent that other forces, particularly political ones, are often sidelined. A more in-depth study of the above two influences is best performed in a context comparatively free of the implicit complex political facets but with sufficiently rich environments to challenge internationalizing firms, and distinct influences to draw pertinent conclusions from. For this purpose, the continually expanding business environments and the unique cultures of the Middle East provide the perfect context …
Promoting Nonprofit Organisations' It Enablement In Singapore, Projjal Ghatak, Guillaume Sachet, Jared Tham
Promoting Nonprofit Organisations' It Enablement In Singapore, Projjal Ghatak, Guillaume Sachet, Jared Tham
Lien Centre for Social Innovation: Research
The non profit landscape in Singapore is large and diverse, consisting of more than 1,800 registered charities and more than 500 approved Institutions of a Public Character (IPCs). These organisations vary in size from less than $100,000 in annual receipts to those with over $10 million in receipts. They also operate in over 10 sectors ranging from religion to education to sports. NPOs could consider the following four common models for enabling and deploying IT: In-sourcing; Outsourcing; Shared Services; Software as a Service (SaaS). Overcoming the challenges and capturing the opportunities can allow Singapore to increase the automation of the …
How Emerging Giants Are Rewriting The Rules Of M&A, Nirmalya Kumar
How Emerging Giants Are Rewriting The Rules Of M&A, Nirmalya Kumar
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
While Western companies struggle with mergers and acquisitions, emerging giants like Indian aluminum producer Hindalco are using M&A as their main globalization strategy. That's partly because developing economies grew at near double-digit rates in the past 15 years, enabling many enterprises to make acquisitions. It's also because, according to the author's research, those corporations create more value from takeovers. To compete, Western multinationals should change their mind-set and shift the locus of their M&A efforts to regional headquarters in developing countries.U.S. and European companies, inhibited by slow-growing home markets, acquire rivals primarily to become bigger and thus create economies of …
Using High-Frequency Transaction Data To Estimate The Probability Of Informed Trading, Anthony S. Tay, Christopher Ting, Yiu Kuen Tse, Mitchell Warachka
Using High-Frequency Transaction Data To Estimate The Probability Of Informed Trading, Anthony S. Tay, Christopher Ting, Yiu Kuen Tse, Mitchell Warachka
Research Collection School Of Economics
This paper applies the asymmetric autoregressive conditional duration (AACD) model of Bauwens and Giot (2003) to estimate the probability of informed trading (PIN) using irregularly spaced transaction data. We model trade direction (buy versus sell orders) and the duration between trades jointly. Unlike the Easley, Hvidkjaer, and O'Hara (2002) approach, which uses the aggregate numbers of daily buy and sell orders to estimate PIN, our methodology allows for interactions between consecutive buy-sell orders and accounts for the duration between trades and the volume of trade. We extend the Easley–Hvidkjaer–O'Hara framework by allowing the probabilities of good news and bad news …
Hype My Stock: Do Firms Really Want Biased Research?, Roger Loh
Hype My Stock: Do Firms Really Want Biased Research?, Roger Loh
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Analyst research is alleged to be biased because of conflicts of interest when analysts’ employers underwrite securities for the firms covered. I posit that affiliated analyst optimism should be the strongest for offering firms with a desire to over-inflate stock prices. I hypothesize that a firm’s corporate governance and its CEO incentives are related to the affiliation bias. Using stock recommendations data, I find evidence that the affiliation bias is indeed more pervasive for firms with high CEO wealth sensitivity to stock price (i.e., high CEO delta). The larger affiliation bias for high delta firms remains even after the introduction …
Customer Satisfaction Index Of Singapore: Executive Summary 2008, Institute Of Service Excellence, Smu
Customer Satisfaction Index Of Singapore: Executive Summary 2008, Institute Of Service Excellence, Smu
Research Collection Institute of Service Excellence
The Institute of Service Excellence at Singapore Management University (ISES) was appointed by the Singapore Workforce Development Agency (WDA) to implement and maintain an annual benchmark for the services sectors in Singapore. The Customer Satisfaction Index of Singapore (CSISG) was first launched in April 2008 based on data collected from a nationwide survey conducted in 2007. In this second year, the results of CSISG 2008 were derived from the survey data gathered between November 2008 and January 2009.
Measurement Equivalence Of Paper-And-Pencil And Internet Organisational Surveys: A Large Scale Examination In 16 Countries, Alain De Beuckelaer, Filip Lievens
Measurement Equivalence Of Paper-And-Pencil And Internet Organisational Surveys: A Large Scale Examination In 16 Countries, Alain De Beuckelaer, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
In multinational surveys, mixed-mode administration modes (e.g. combining Internet and paper-and-pencil administration) are increasingly used. To date, no studies have investigated whether measurement equivalence exists between Internet data collection and data collection using the conventional paper-and-pencil method in organisational surveys which include a large number of countries. This paper examined the measurement equivalence of a truly global organisational survey across Internet and paper-and-pencil survey administrations. Data from an organisational survey in 16 countries (N = 52,461) across the globe were used to assess the measurement equivalence of an organisational climate measure within each country in which the survey was administered. …
The Strategies Of Chinese And Indian Software Multinationals: Implications For Internationalization Theory, Jorge Niosi, F. Ted Tschang
The Strategies Of Chinese And Indian Software Multinationals: Implications For Internationalization Theory, Jorge Niosi, F. Ted Tschang
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
China and India are emerging as major entrants into the international software industry. Both are rapidly learning through outsourcing with multinational enterprises (MNEs) from advanced nations, yet their paths to this dynamic sector are very different. Chinese software firms have focused on their domestic market by working with foreign MNEs, while they move cautiously abroad. Indian firms, which are already large, continue to expand overseas as well as to climb the value chain. Different approaches to MNEs provide useful perspectives. At the same time, the innovation systems approach is necessary to explain the foundations of the industry. The article provides …
Guanxi Versus Networking: Distinctive Configurations Of Affect- And Cognition-Based Trust In The Networks Of Chinese And American Managers, Roy Y. J. Chua, Michael W. Morris, Paul Ingram
Guanxi Versus Networking: Distinctive Configurations Of Affect- And Cognition-Based Trust In The Networks Of Chinese And American Managers, Roy Y. J. Chua, Michael W. Morris, Paul Ingram
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
This research investigates hypotheses about differences between Chinese and American managers in the configuration of trusting relationships within their professional networks. Consistent with hypotheses about Chinese familial collectivism, an egocentric network survey found that affect- and cognition-based trust were more intertwined for Chinese than for American managers. In addition, the effect of economic exchange on affect-based trust was more positive for Chinese than for Americans, whereas the effect of friendship was more positive for Americans than for Chinese. Finally, the extent to which a given relationship was highly embedded in ties to third parties increased cognition-based trust for Chinese but …
Second Stage Development Of The Integrated Crisis Mapping (Icm) Model In Crisis Communication: Organizational Strategies For Crises That Require High And Low Organizational Engagements, Augustine Pang, Yan Jin, Glen T. Cameron
Second Stage Development Of The Integrated Crisis Mapping (Icm) Model In Crisis Communication: Organizational Strategies For Crises That Require High And Low Organizational Engagements, Augustine Pang, Yan Jin, Glen T. Cameron
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Extending current theories in crisis communication, the authors have developed a moresystemic approach to understanding the role of emotions. The Integrated Crisis Mapping (ICM)model is based on a public-based, emotion-driven perspective where different crises aremapped on two continua, the organization’s engagement in the crisis and primary public’scoping strategy. This second-stage testing, representing the fourth in the series, found that ontop of discovering anxiety as a possible default emotion that publics feel in crises in an earlierstudy, the default response organizations embroiled in crises involving hostile takeovers,accidents, natural disasters, CEO retirement, rumor, and psychopathic acts, tend to adopt isqualified rhetoric-mix stance …
Tapping The Grapevine: A Closer Look At Word-Of-Mouth As A Recruitment Source, Greet Van Hoye, Filip Lievens
Tapping The Grapevine: A Closer Look At Word-Of-Mouth As A Recruitment Source, Greet Van Hoye, Filip Lievens
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
To advance knowledge of word-of-mouth as a company-independent recruitment source, this study draws on conceptualizations of word-of-mouth in the marketing literature. The sample consisted of 612 potential applicants targeted by the Belgian Defense. Consistent with the recipient-source framework, time spent receiving positive word-of-mouth was determined by the traits of the recipient (extraversion and conscientiousness), the characteristics of the source (perceived expertise), and their mutual relationship (tie strength). Only conscientiousness and source expertise were determinants of receiving negative word-of-mouth. In line with the accessibility-diagnosticity model, receiving positive employment information through word-of-mouth early in the recruitment process was positively associated with perceptual …
India Unleashed, Nirmalya Kumar
India Unleashed, Nirmalya Kumar
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Corporations in the developed world increasingly see India as a high-growth market and its companies as acquirers of their assets, global competitors, partners for enhancing the competitiveness of their global value chain and a source of new energy and dreams for the world economy. How did this all happen? The author shares the essence of what he learned from 10 trips to India to interview more than 30 CEOs and top executives who are unleashing the new global power of Indian firms.
Final Stage Development Of The Integrated Crisis Mapping (Icm) Model In Crisis Communication: The Myth Of Low Engagement In Crisis, A. Pang, Yan Jin, Glen T. Cameron
Final Stage Development Of The Integrated Crisis Mapping (Icm) Model In Crisis Communication: The Myth Of Low Engagement In Crisis, A. Pang, Yan Jin, Glen T. Cameron
Research Collection Lee Kong Chian School Of Business
Extending current theories in crisis communication, the authors have developed a more systemic approach to understanding the role of emotions. The Integrated Crisis Mapping (ICM) model is based on a public-based, emotion-driven perspective where different crises are mapped on two continua, the organization’s engagement in the crisis and primary public’s coping strategy. This final-stage testing, representing the sixth in the series, found that even though organizations need not be highly engaged in crises relating to human resource, transport failure and security issues, they were galvanized to engage in action-based stance by situational factors like external threats. The fact that the …