Engineering Commons^™

Deformation And Shear Behaviors Of Weathered Compacted Shale, Xu Zhang

Theses and Dissertations--Civil Engineering

As an abundant sedimentary rock, shale is widely used as construction material around the world. However, shale is a fissile and laminated material and is therefore subject to deterioration due to environmental and chemical forces (i.e., weathering), which is possible to cause high maintenance cost on associated structures and failures of earth slopes and embankments. However, currently, there is lack of efficient method to monitor the weathering process of shale. This thesis uses several shale samples collected from the commonwealth of Kentucky to study the deformation and shear behaviors of weathered compacted shale. A new electrical approach was developed to …

Development Of A Constitutive Model Of Compacted Shales And Determination Of The Effect Of Weathering On Its Parameters, Isabel Cristina Gomez-Gutierrez

Theses and Dissertations--Civil Engineering

Compacted shales cause problems because they tend to degrade with time due to weathering. Degradation results in the shale deteriorating from a hard rock-like material to a soft fine-grained soil mass with lower shear strength and high deformability. Consequently, common problems that occur in embankments constructed with compacted shales include settlement and instabilities. Therefore, accelerating weathering prior to compaction by wetting and breaking down the shales before placement can reduce the deterioration during the service life of the construction. Extensive laboratory testing was performed in order to characterize the mechanical behavior of compacted shales.

Critical State theory is a clever …

Factors Affecting Asphalt Pavement Density And The Effect On Long Term Pavement Performance, Jonathan Fisher, Clark Graves, Phillip Blankenship, Salman Hakimzadeh-Khoee, R. Michael Anderson

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The Kentucky Transportation Center, the Asphalt Institute, and the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet worked together in order to identify factors that affect asphalt pavement density, and to then evaluate their effect on long term pavement performance.

By determining which variables are most influential to pavement performance (i.e. roller pattern, temperature when rolled, etc.), and then monitoring the attention given to those variables, Kentucky would be able to increase the service life of asphalt roadways by at least 25%, therefore saving as much as $30 million annually on a resurfacing budget of $129.2 million (2007), while still maintaining the current roadway level …

Evaluation Of The Use Of Snowplowable Raised Pavement Markers, Kenneth R. Agent, Eric R. Green

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and durability of snowplowable raised pavement markers (RPM) installed on the RPM system in Kentucky. The durability evaluation dealt with the marker housing.

The data show that continued use of the currently approved snowplowable RPM can be justified if the castings are properly installed on new pavements with a commitment that the pavement will be maintained. An evaluation of centerline rumble strips installations showed that they should be considered on rural, two-lane roads with 12-foot lane widths (having new pavements) and paved shoulders.

Evaluation Of Diamond Grade Reflective Sheeting, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this project was to monitor the performance of the diamond grade sheeting when used on both typical traffic signs and construction signs. The durability, appearance, and reflectivity of the signs were monitored. Diamond grade sheetings used on typical traffic signs were evaluated over a two-year period with construction signs evaluated over an 18-month period.

Diamond grade sheeting was found to provide increased reflectivity compared to high intensity sheeting with no problems noted related to durability or appearance. However, the cost of the diamond grade sheeting would limit its use to situations where brighter, wider-angle reflective sheeting is …

Evaluation Of Stamark Brand Bisymmetric 1.75 Grade Pavement Marking Tape, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this project was to evaluate the performance of Stamark Brand Bisymmetric 1.75 Grade pavement Marking Tape (Series 320) on a large-scale installation on Interstate 24 in McCracken County. The evaluation consisted of periodic inspection of the tape to determine its durability, appearance, and reflectivity.

The tape has demonstrated good performance after two years in service. No durability problems were noted. While the appearance of the tape was not as bright as a typical traffic paint, it was adequate. The tape has maintained a high level of reflectivity. The performance of the material would potentially warrant additional use …

Evaluation Of Flexible Delineator Posts, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study was to install a small number of lightweight metal u-channel posts with a round delineator and a small number of commonly used flexible posts and evaluate their performance. Three types of flexible posts were installed. They included two posts manufactured by Carsonite and one manufactured by Safe-Hit.

The results of the limited field tests does not support widespread use of flexible posts. Substantial durability problems were encountered with the flexible posts. Future use of flexible posts should be limited to potential high-hit areas such as gores at urban interchanges. While the durability of the metal …

Long-Term Evaluation Of Durable Lane Delineation Materials, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this report was to summarize the long-term performance of several types of durable lane delineation materials. Polyester paint was determined to be an effective durable lane material with most use of this material being on asphaltic concrete surfaces having an average daily traffic of under 10,000. Extruded thermoplastic was also determined to be an effective durable lane delineation material with its cost limiting its use to higher volume asphaltic concrete surfaces. Either the hydrocarbon or alkyd thermoplastic formulation could be used but the alkyd formulation was observed to maintain a higher reflectivity. While not classified as a …

Evaluation Of Construction-Zone Pavement Marking Materials, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objectives of this study were to evaluate available foil-back and removable tapes as well as one new construction-zone raised pavement marker and to recommend materials that should be included on approved lists for use by the Kentucky Department of Highways. Tapes were placed on transverse test sections and the reflectivity, durability, and appearance were observed.

Tapes to be included on the approved lists for foil-back and removable tapes were recommended. Tapes manufactured by 3M, Flex-0-Lite, and Swarolite were included on the list of acceptable foil-back tapes. Recommended removable tapes were the 3M and Cataphote removable tapes. The Astra Optics …

Evaluation Of Extruded Thermoplastics As Lane Delineation, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

This study involved an evaluation of large-scale installations of both hydrocarbon and alkyd extruded thermoplastics as lane delineation on sections of interstate highways having open-graded surfaces. The objective of the study was to evaluate the performance of thermoplastics as lane delineation and to compare the performance of hydrocarbon versus alkyd formulations.

Data were collected on a periodic basis over an 18-month period. Data collection consisted of daytime observations of the appearance and durability of the thermoplastic material along with reflectivity measurements using a portable retroreflectometer.

The evaluation revealed that both the hydrocarbon and alkyd extruded thermoplastic material maintained their appearance, …

Evaluation Of Procedures For Testing Aggregates, David Q. Hunsucker

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

This report summarizes findings of a research study conducted to evaluate aggregate testing procedures as related to aggregate soundness and durability. The objectives of the study were to determine a suitable replacement or modification of Kentucky's existing Sodium Sulfate Soundness Test for aggregates which would more accurately reflect in-service performance of concrete pavements and bridges, to correlate freezing and thawing durability data and other test data with sodium sulfate soundness data, and to develop a rational implementation criterion for use of new or modified testing procedures.

There were no observable correlations between the various test methods evaluated and the Sodium …

A Survey Of States' Aggregate Soundness Specifications And Test Methods, David Q. Hunsucker

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

This report summarizes findings of a national survey to determine aggregate durability test methods and specification requirements of the various states. Also included are specifications and test methods concerning allowable shale contents in aggregates and requirements for percentages of crushed particles in aggregates.

Evaluation Of Epoxy Thermoplastic Pavement Marking Material, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study was to evaluate the field performance of epoxy thermoplastic (ETP) as a pavement marking material and to compare it to a control marking material, which was alkyd traffic paint. A test installation of ETP along with the regular traffic paint was placed on KY 841 in Jefferson County and evaluated over an 18-month period. Data collection consisted of daytime observations and rating of the material's appearance and durability and nighttime observations and rating of its nighttime visibility. Reflectivity measurements were also collected using a portable retroreflectometer.

The appearance (color) of the ETP remained good over …

Evaluation Of Snowplowable Marker Installations, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The first large-scale contracts for the installation of snowplowable markers were awarded in 1984 and 1985. Stimsonite 96 and recessed markers were installed. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of the installations. Durability and reflectivity results show that both the recessed markers and Stimsonite 96 markers have performed effectively as snowplowable markers. The recessed markers should continue to be used only on four-lane highways constructed to high geometric standards with the Stimsonite 96 markers installed on the majority of highways.

Evaluation Of Durable Crosswalk And Stopbar Marking Materials, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study was to find the most cost-effective durable marking material to provide long-lasting stop bars and crossbars. Three materials were tested: 1) 3M Stamark tape, 2) Prismo preformed tape, and 3) extruded thermoplastic (hydrocarbon and alkyd). The various test installations were in place for between 6 and 30 months.

The alkyd-resin thermoplastic material was found to be the most cost-effective I material. The preformed tapes cost two to three times as much as the thermoplastic material while not providing as durable a material when used in this application.The alkyd-resin material maintained its appearance better than the …

Evaluation Of Durable Lane Delineation Materials, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of the study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of available marking materials by means of field tests and to make recommendations concerning the optimum lane delineation materials based on these tests. Materials tested include 100-percent solid epoxy paint, polyester paint, extruded thermoplastic, 3M Stamark tape, 3M Bisymmetric tape, EPOFLEX, solvent epoxy paint, chlorinated rubber traffic paint, and alkyd traffic paint. The test installations have been in place up to four years. The evaluation concerned the durability, reflectivity, and appearance of the materials. Based on current data, expanded use is warranted for 1) polyester paint on lower-volume asphaltic concrete …

Evaluation Of Construction Zone Pavement Marking Materials, Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objectives of this report were to evaluate all available foil-back and removable tapes as well as construction zone raised pavement markers and to recommend materials that should be included on approved lists for use by the Kentucky Department of Highways. The tapes were placed on transverse test sections and as lane lines and the reflectivity, durability, and appearance were observed. The markers were observed at test sections as well as at construction sites.

Lists of tapes to be included on the approved lists for foil-back and removable tapes were recommended. Tapes manufactured by 3M and Flex-0-Lite were included on …

Evaluation Of Durable Lane Delineation Materials (Interim Report), Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of the study is to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of available marking materials by means of field tests and to develop a policy for material selection of lane delineation based on these tests. Materials tested included: 100 percent solid epoxy paint, polyester paint, extruded thermoplastic, 3M Stamark tape, 3M Bisymmetric tape, EPOFLEX, solvent epoxy paint, and chlorinated rubber paint. Most test installations have been in place for over two years, and this interim report summarizes findings for that period. The evaluation will continue for another 18 months with recommendations presented in a final report.

Based on current data, expanded …

Evaluation Of Durable Crosswalk And Stopbar Marking Materials (Interim Report), Kenneth R. Agent, Jerry G. Pigman

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study is to find the most cost-effective durable marking material to provide long-lasting stop bars and crossbars. Three materials were tested: 1) 3M Stamark tape, 2) Prismo preformed tape, and 3) extruded thermoplastic. The evaluation concerned the durability, reflectivity, and appearance of the materials. Test installations have been in place for about 18 months, and this interim report summarizes findings for that period. The evaluation will continue for another 18 months, and recommendations will be presented in a final report.

Based on current evaluations, the extruded thermoplastic material would be considered the most cost-effective material for …

Evaluation Of Snowplowable Markers, Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objective of this study was to evaluate available snowplowable markers under similar traffic and snowplowing operations. There were five different markers tested which included the following: 1) Stimsonite 96, 2) Dura-Brite, 3) recessed, 4) Kingray, and 5) Prismo Roadstud.

The Stimsonite 96, Dura-Brite, and recessed markers were found to be acceptable snowplowable markers. All three of these markers were found to have adequate reflectivity during both dry and wet nighttime conditions. This reflectivity was maintained over the test period and the markers proved to be durable when subjected to snowplow operations. However, considering all available input, the recessed marker …

Evaluation Of Pavement Tape As Lane Delineation, Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

This study involved the field testing of four types of pavement tapes, all manufactured by the 3M Company. The tapes evaluated included Scotchlane, Stamark Removable, Stamark, and an experimental tape. The experimental tape had an extremely high initial reflectivity but poor durability, which would preclude use in its present form. The remaining tapes exhibited good durability when used as lanelines and edgelines. The Scotchlane tape exhibited the best long-term reflectivity. The Stamark tape does not provide sufficient reflectivity and could not be used in areas where delineation would be critical. The Stamark Removable tape was easily removed manually after one …

Low-Void Concrete Mixtures, Assaf S. Rahal, James H. Havens

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The purpose of this study was to modify concrete mix-design formulas to supplant all water over and above that needed for hydration with a non-evaporable liquid material and(or) a super-water-reducer or plasticizer -- thus producing a low-void concrete. A water-cement ratio of 0.244 - 0.30 was presumed minimal for hydration of the cement. Several polymeric materials, asphalts, oils, and superplasticizers were used. Success was achieved with two latexes, one epoxy, and several superplasticizers. The use of these materials in concrete resulted in improved strength, reduction of air voids and permeability, and enhancement of resistance to corrosive chloride salts.

Raised-Aggregate, Lane-Delineation Stripe, Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

Experimental raised-aggregate (1/2 inch (13 mm) to 1 inch (25 mm)) traffic stripes were installed on approximately 0.4 mile (644 m) of US 60 just north of the intersection with US 421 in Franklin County. Installation was during June 1974. Aggregate stripes were painted yellow and used as skip lines inside the continuous channelization stripes to indicate no crossing into the two-way, left-turn lane except for turning movements.

Observations indicated that the raised-aggregate stripes had good durability after being exposed to 2 years of wear. During dry, nighttime conditions, the paint stripes were slightly more effective than the aggregate stripes; …

Evaluation Of Thermoplastic Pavement-Striping Materials (Louisville And Jefferson County), Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

Approximately 1,406,100 linear feet (428,579 m) of hot-sprayed thermoplastic stripe was applied to roadways in Louisville and Jefferson County in the summer of 1973. Visual observations of appearance, durability, and night visibility were conducted according to ASTM D 713-69, the standard method for conducting road service tests on traffic paint. Attempts to conduct photometer measurements of the thermoplastic striping were unsuccessful. Visual observations made during rainy, nighttime conditions were also unsuccessful because very little difference was noticeable among the various sections.

The evaluation showed that the thermoplastic stripes performed considerably better on bituminous concrete pavements than on portland cement concrete …

Evaluation Of Paint-Stripe Beads, Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The objectives of this phase of the overall "Roadway Delineation" study were to evaluate the luminosity and durability of several types of glass beads and one type of plastic bead used with paint stripes and to determine their effectiveness during rainy, nighttime conditions. Eleven types of beads were evaluated. They were applied at rates approximating 4, 5, and 6 pounds per gallon (479, 599, and 719 kg/m3). Photometer and visual observations extended to about 9 months after application of test stripes.

Transverse, Pavement Markings For Speed Control And Accident Reduction, Kenneth R. Agent

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

Transverse pavement markings were placed ahead of a sharp curve having a high-accident history. Speed and accident studies were conducted before and after. The markings were placed so that drivers otherwise failing to reduce speeds while approaching the curve would see transverse lines on the pavement at an increasing rate. The spacing of lines was intended to create an illusion of acceleration which would cause the driver to slow. The results indicated that pavement markings can be an effective speed-control measure and reduce accidents. At the single site studied, the obedience of drivers to this type of hazard warning was …

Evaluation Of Raised Pavement Markers, Jerry G. Pigman, Kenneth R. Agent, Rolands L. Rizenbergs

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the operational applicability of raised pavement markers and to determine their effectiveness with respect to brightness and durability. Seven different types of markers were evaluated. The primary application of markers in this study was as a supplement to lane lines. They were also used as a traffic control measure at lane drops, as delineation for hazardous curves, and as directional arrows.

Luminosity and durability were monitored for approximately one year. It was found that raised pavement markers can be a very effective method of roadway delineation. Markers evaluated had varying levels of …

Voidless Concrete Mixtures For Bridge Decks, Assaf S. Rahal

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

The purpose of this study was to modify concrete mix-design formulas to supplant all water over and above that needed for hydration with a non-evaporable material -- thus producing a no-void concrete. It was adjudged that a water-cement ratio of 0.244 would be practical for hydration of the cement. Several polymeric materials, asphalts, and oils were used to replace the excess mixing water. Success was achieved using two latexes and one epoxy. The use of these materials in concrete resulted in improved strength, reduction of air voids and permeability, and enhancement of resistance to corrosive chloride salts.

High-Intensity Reflective Materials For Signs, Rolands L. Rizenbergs

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

Field observations and laboratory tests and evaluations were conducted on High-Intensity and Engineering grade materials (Scotchlite), manufactured by the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, and were compared in regard to reflectivity, durability, and cost.

The High-Intensity type materials were found to have outstanding performance characteristics in comparison to Engineering Grade materials. The material significantly enhances sign legibility under low-beam illumination, and accelerated weathering tests showed superior durability.

Durability Of Traffic Paint On Portland Cement Concrete Pavements, Assaf S. Rahal

Kentucky Transportation Center Research Report

Performance of a series of transverse lines applied to a relatively new concrete pavement, utilizing primes and pretreatments, is reported. The report includes descriptions of the location of test lines and types of paint and pretreatments, performance histories, and analysis of results. Chlorinated rubber, epoxy, and urethane paints were the most durable. Neither pretreatment nor the use of primes significantly increased durability.