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Articles 1 - 30 of 156
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In The Grey Of The Superfund, Krysti Shallenberger
In The Grey Of The Superfund, Krysti Shallenberger
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
The oil-soaked ground underneath several homes near the Tank Hill Facilities released vapors into the homes. The people in Cut Bank, Montana complained, and the Montana Department of Environmental Quality held a meeting in 2010. But that was just the beginning.Residents in Cut Bank, Montana just filed a complaint against four oil companies who used the Tank Hill crude oil storage and transportation facility. But the complaint only culminated after 24 years of suffering oil fumes, contaminated water and decreased property value. The Tank Hill Facilities superfund site had been used to store and transport crude oil since the 1930s. …
Identification Of Mastigocladus Laminosus Genes Associated With Enhanced Nitrogen Fixation Performance, Patrick R. Hutchins
Identification Of Mastigocladus Laminosus Genes Associated With Enhanced Nitrogen Fixation Performance, Patrick R. Hutchins
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Understanding population variation for fitness-related traits is important for our comprehension of evolutionary adaptation and of how populations respond to environmental change. Here, I investigate variation in nitrogen fixation performance for an ecologically-variable population of the cyanobacterium Mastigocladus laminosus from White Creek, a nitrogen-limited, geothermally-influenced stream in Yellowstone NP. I next take a population genomics approach to identify candidate loci associated with superior performance. Variation among strains and temperature dependence of the nitrogen fixation process were the most important factors in a linear mixed effects model. Absolute and relative measures of genetic differentiation between strains from the upper quartile of …
Quantifying The Influence Of Past Wildfires On The Severity And Size Of Subsequent Wildfires, Sean Aaron Parks
Quantifying The Influence Of Past Wildfires On The Severity And Size Of Subsequent Wildfires, Sean Aaron Parks
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Wildfire is arguably one of the most important and widespread natural disturbance agents in western U.S. forests. It has a substantial impact on ecosystem structure and function by influencing soils, nutrients, carbon budgets, wildlife habitat, and vegetation. Wildfires also influence fuel amount, type, and structure, potentially influencing the severity and size of subsequent wildfires through site- and landscape-level feedback mechanisms. Until relatively recently, the ability to quantitatively evaluate how these feedback mechanisms operate has not been feasible because of data limitations (i.e. there has not been enough wildfire). However, due to increased fire activity over the last ~25 years, there …
Ties That Bind On The Northwestern Plains: Contexts For Prehistoric Trade And Travel, Sara Alicia Scott
Ties That Bind On The Northwestern Plains: Contexts For Prehistoric Trade And Travel, Sara Alicia Scott
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
This PhD dissertation focuses on several interrelated archaeological problems in Northwestern Plains and Intermountain prehistory. The dissertation is comprised of three articles that have been either accepted for publication in peer-reviewed regional or international archaeological journals or are in the process of being reviewed for publication. The articles focus on the following subjects: 1) radiocarbon dating and analysis of Late Prehistoric period perishable items from Pictograph and Ghost Caves in south-central Montana; 2) radiocarbon dating of lower cultural levels in Pictograph Cave to assess the accuracy of the chronology established by William Mulloy in 1958; and 3) an analysis of …
The Effects Of The Fur Trade On Aboriginal Households In The Middle Fraser Region Of British Columbia, Lisa Michelle Smith
The Effects Of The Fur Trade On Aboriginal Households In The Middle Fraser Region Of British Columbia, Lisa Michelle Smith
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Ethnographic literature of First Nations groups in the Middle Fraser region of British Columbia describe communities that were hierarchically organized with elite, commoner, and slave classes, underwritten by elite ownership of keystone resources, and perpetuated by competitive feasting events used to maintain debt relations, unequal distribution of food and raw materials, and possibly elite control over trade networks. Narratives of the ethnographic present are commonly utilized to describe cultural patterns of the deeper past, despite the fact that we lack knowledge of the effects of European colonialism and the role it may have had in shaping the socioeconomic and political …
Effects Of Individual-Oriented Relationship Education On University Students' Knowledge, Beliefs, And Attitudes, Sara Polanchek
Effects Of Individual-Oriented Relationship Education On University Students' Knowledge, Beliefs, And Attitudes, Sara Polanchek
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
This quasi-experimental, exploratory study adds important empirical research to the relatively new field of individual-oriented relationship education. It describes the extent to which specific relationship beliefs and attitudes are held, and evaluates the impact of an undergraduate, semester-long Intimate and Family Relationships course on these beliefs. Utilizing data collected over two semesters at the University of Montana, this study compared 356 student responses at the beginning and end of the semester on three separate scales designed to quantify select measures of specific constraint beliefs and attitudes: Attitudes About Romance and Mate Selection (AARMS), the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), and the …
Biological Invasions: Insights Into Ecology And Evolution, Jennifer Naomi Smith
Biological Invasions: Insights Into Ecology And Evolution, Jennifer Naomi Smith
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Introductions of exotic species commonly restructure native communities, but the mechanisms driving native species responses are poorly understood. Invasion biology has focused its research on the negative impacts of invaders, yet invaders can also have positive interactions. A holistic understanding of how biological invasions can have a full range of potential responses from negative to neutral to positive. Understanding the mechanics that underlie native species responses to invasions can help elucidate those factors structuring the native communities we see today. I used a combination of experimental and observational studies in the field and laboratory to determine the effects of spotted …
The Relationship Between Intergenerational Educational Experiences, School Culture/Climate, And Racial Identity Among American Indian High School Students, Sandra Lee Boham
The Relationship Between Intergenerational Educational Experiences, School Culture/Climate, And Racial Identity Among American Indian High School Students, Sandra Lee Boham
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
This research focused on the whether or not there was a relationship between (a) school culture and climate, (b) racial identity, and (c) inter-generational educational experiences of American Indian students in urban/off-reservation AA high schools in Montana as perceived by American Indian students, American Indian parents, administrators, teachers, and staff. Data were collected at four schools located in two school districts in different geographical locations in Montana. The data were collected using the (a) School as a Caring Community Profile (SCCP-II) survey, (b) People of Color Racial Identity Attitude Scale (PRIAS) survey, (c) demographic survey data, (d) academic achievement data, …
Effect Of An Intensive Intervention On The Early Literacy Skills Of Kindergarten Students Identified As Most At Risk For Future Reading Difficulties, Craig S. Buscher
Effect Of An Intensive Intervention On The Early Literacy Skills Of Kindergarten Students Identified As Most At Risk For Future Reading Difficulties, Craig S. Buscher
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
There is limited research investigating the individualized effects of early literacy interventions on kindergarten students who are most at risk for reading failure at school entry. In this study, a multiple baseline design was used to measure the effect of an early literacy intervention on the alphabet knowledge and phonological awareness of kindergarten students identified as most at risk. First, a two-stage screening process consisting of measures of alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, and rapid automatic naming was employed to identify those students with the lowest overall skill level from the entire at-risk kindergarten population from one school building. The nine …
Lithic Design And Technological Organization In Housepit 1 Of The S7istken Site, Middle Fraser Canyon, British Columbia, Matthew Mattes
Lithic Design And Technological Organization In Housepit 1 Of The S7istken Site, Middle Fraser Canyon, British Columbia, Matthew Mattes
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Archaeological research of Housepit 1 at the S7istken site in the Middle Fraser region of the British Columbia Plateau has been ongoing since the summer of 2010. Housepit 1 is one of eight housepits at the site, and to date it has been excavated in near entirety. This has provided a large faunal assemblage mostly comprised of stored salmon remains, and also a lithic assemblage that has proven to be a useful measure of late prehistoric lifeways from the perspective of technological organization and lithic design strategies. Housepit 1 was occupied twice between about 350-300 B.P., which is the proto-historic …
An Emprirical Test Of The Effectiveness Of An Indirect Management Tool In Increasing Optional Shuttle Use At Glacier National Park, Alex Benjamin Weinberg
An Emprirical Test Of The Effectiveness Of An Indirect Management Tool In Increasing Optional Shuttle Use At Glacier National Park, Alex Benjamin Weinberg
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Glacier National Park instituted an optional, free shuttle system on the Going-to-the-Sun Road in 2007.It was recently discovered that the shuttle system was having an adverse impact on parking congestion at the Logan Pass parking lot. This was occurring because visitors were able to park at Logan Pass all day while they performed a looped hike from the Highline trailhead to the Loop trailhead. Upon completion of their hike, visitors would take the shuttle back to their vehicles. A variety of data suggests that the shuttle system may be inadvertently adding 40-60 day-long passenger vehicles to the Logan Pass parking …
Synthesis And Biological Evaluation Of A Library Of Polyacetylene Compounds Based On An Antiprotozoal Natural Product From Cussonia Zimmermannii, John Hoody
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Leishmaniasis is one of several tropical diseases classified as a ôneglected tropical diseaseö. Its global prevalence is 12 million people with an estimated at-risk population of 350 million people.1 Current treatments include antimonials, amphotericin B, pentamidine, and miltefosine. Access to these medications is often limited in the impoverished nations that Leishmaniasis predominantly affects. Drug resistance and toxicity are also significant drawbacks to the current treatments.3 Therefore, there is an immediate need for the research and development of novel therapeutic molecules and strategies to combat Leishmaniasis.
Geography’S Place In Big Sky Country: A Study Of Motivating And Demotivating Factors For Teaching Geography In The Montana Classroom, Kayde Ellen Kaiser
Geography’S Place In Big Sky Country: A Study Of Motivating And Demotivating Factors For Teaching Geography In The Montana Classroom, Kayde Ellen Kaiser
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
The purpose of this research was to develop an understanding of the motivating and demotivating factors for teaching geography. The research examined what aspects of policy, preparation, administration, etc. affect a teacher’s desire to teach geography concepts in the (K)-12 classroom. By understanding these factors, organizations and programs can begin to mitigate them with the intention of encouraging teacher to teach quality geography concepts, and ultimately produce students with increased geographical knowledge and literacy. The research created a set of primary source data that will be utilized for further research and strategic planning. The research will assist the Montana Geographic …
The Sequence Stratigraphy Of Tectonically Influenced Upper Santonian To Lower Campanian Strata: The Telegraph Creek And Eagle Formations In South‐Central Montana, Alexander Bradford Brekke
The Sequence Stratigraphy Of Tectonically Influenced Upper Santonian To Lower Campanian Strata: The Telegraph Creek And Eagle Formations In South‐Central Montana, Alexander Bradford Brekke
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
The Santonian to Campanian Telegraph Creek and Eagle formations in south-central Montana contain a series of regressive to transgressive cycles deposited on the western margin of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway. This study focuses on depositional environments, stratal stacking patterns, and syndepositional faulting. Four cycles are identified and mapped regionally over an area of 30,000 km2 using outcrop and subsurface data to correlate 100 km up paleoslope from their maximum seaward extent. Each cycle of progradation and subsequent transgression left behind an upward-coarsening shoreface and/or deltaic sandstone body, capped by either a transgressive sand, an erosional top or maximum flooding …
The Effects Of Estrogen In Atrazine-Mediated Foxp3 Induction And Inhibition Of Cd4+ T Effector Cells, Tiffany Emmons
The Effects Of Estrogen In Atrazine-Mediated Foxp3 Induction And Inhibition Of Cd4+ T Effector Cells, Tiffany Emmons
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Atrazine (ATR) is a chlorotriazine herbicide that is heavily used in agricultural areas. Atrazine was banned in Europe in 2006 but it is still used in the United States. It is also the most common drinking water contaminant in the United States. Atrazine has been linked to adverse health effects and displays immunotoxicity. It is a potent phosphodiesterase inhibitor and has been shown to induce aromatase activity leading to elevated estrogen levels. Previous studies demonstrated that in vitro atrazine exposure inhibits CD4+ T cell activation and proliferation and increases the frequency of Foxp3+ CD4+ T cells with more severe phenotypes …
Restoration As Caring Practice: A Relational Perspective On Ecological Recovery, Daniel Avery Congdon
Restoration As Caring Practice: A Relational Perspective On Ecological Recovery, Daniel Avery Congdon
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Ecological restoration is defined by the Society for Ecological Restoration (SER) as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed” (9). In practice, restoration typically involves the removal of pollution, human-made structures (like dams or roads), invasive species, and other impediments to ecological health. Removing the sources of ecological impairment is coupled with the reintroduction of flora, fauna, and the physical structures that are necessary for healthy ecosystem function. The potential for restoration to dominate nature is a concern of environmental ethicists. In theory, domination might stem from the technology used in …
Childhood Trauma-Related Nightmares: The Impact Of Exposure, Relaxation, And Rescripting Therapy On Cognitive Functioning, Susan E. Ocean
Childhood Trauma-Related Nightmares: The Impact Of Exposure, Relaxation, And Rescripting Therapy On Cognitive Functioning, Susan E. Ocean
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Trauma experiences are, unfortunately, a common part of childhood in the United States and are connected to serious health-related concerns throughout childhood and adulthood. A primary symptom of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress is re-experiencing, which often occurs in the form of nightmares. Though cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) is currently the most well supported treatment model for trauma-exposure, it does not specifically address nightmares. Left untreated, trauma-related nightmares may become chronic, impairing quality and quantity of sleep, and exacerbating and perpetuating trauma symptoms. Quality sleep is a necessary element of healthy child development. Trauma experiences and inadequate sleep have been …
A Multiple-Case Study On How Fifth Grade Students Experience Reading, Tiffany Tate
A Multiple-Case Study On How Fifth Grade Students Experience Reading, Tiffany Tate
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
The research from this study provides information for teachers, leaders, and administrators to review and analyze how fifth grade students experience reading. It will be important to adjust or change the strategies to promote reading and / or the curriculum for fifth grade students. Fullan (2011), a noted change theorist, identified five characteristics of effective leadership for change: (a) moral purpose, (b) understanding the change process, (c) strong relationships, (d) knowledge sharing, and (e) coherence, or connecting new knowledge with existing knowledge that served as the theoretical framework from which the data was viewed. The information from this study is …
The Effects Of Seed Source Health On Whitebark Pine Regeneration Density After Wildfire, Signe B. Leirfallom
The Effects Of Seed Source Health On Whitebark Pine Regeneration Density After Wildfire, Signe B. Leirfallom
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) is declining nearly range-wide largely from mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks and the exotic pathogen Cronartium ribicola, which causes the disease white pine blister rust. With high mortality in cone-bearing whitebark pine, seed production may not be sufficient to support natural regeneration after disturbance such as wildfire. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between whitebark pine seed source health and whitebark pine regeneration density in adjacent, stand-replacing burns. I sampled regeneration patterns and seed source health and status in 15 burns within six national forests and …
Effects Of Road-Stream Crossings On Populations Of The Idaho Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon Aterrimus), Richard K. Honeycutt
Effects Of Road-Stream Crossings On Populations Of The Idaho Giant Salamander (Dicamptodon Aterrimus), Richard K. Honeycutt
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Habitat disturbances affect wildlife populations through numerous mechanisms, and determining specific components of habitat disturbances affecting those populations is challenging. For example, a single disturbance can both change local habitat conditions and impose limitations on dispersal of animals. Both of these components can negatively affect biological responses, such as body condition, local movement patterns, or survival. Culverts are a habitat disturbance having both of these components. Culverts affect local habitat conditions by increasing sediment levels in downstream reaches, negatively affecting animals downstream of culverts. Culverts also impose limits on dispersal by blocking passage of stream organisms to upstream reaches, negatively …
Proactive Management Of Pneumonia Epizootics In Bighorn Sheep In Montana, Sarah N. Sells
Proactive Management Of Pneumonia Epizootics In Bighorn Sheep In Montana, Sarah N. Sells
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Pneumonia epizootics are a major challenge for management of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), often causing high mortality and subsequent long-term impacts that may continue for decades. There have been at least 22 epizootics in herds in Montana from 1979‒2013, including 1 that led to a herd’s extirpation, several that appear to be affecting herds up to 3 decades later, and 11 in the last 6 years. The disease is complex and associated risk factors are poorly understood. A lack of tools to help predict and proactively manage risk of pneumonia epizootics in attempt to prevent die-offs has led …
An Environmental Toxic Model Of Parkinson's Disease: The Fruit Fly, Jennene Lyda
An Environmental Toxic Model Of Parkinson's Disease: The Fruit Fly, Jennene Lyda
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder with no known specific cause; although genetic risk factors and/or environmental exposure are thought to be involved. The etiology of PD is currently unknown, although the combination of non-genetic components such as environmental exposures, the accumulation of exposure, and gene-environment interactions are thought to play a major role. However, despite this knowledge it is important to develop better models that parallel PD pathophysiology to further understand the mechanisms underlying dopaminergic neuron (DaN) damage. The use of mammalian models to study the degenerative processes in PD has been the most common …
Spatial Patterns And Physical Factors Of Smokejumper Utilization Since 2004, Tyson A. Atkinson
Spatial Patterns And Physical Factors Of Smokejumper Utilization Since 2004, Tyson A. Atkinson
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
This research examines patterns of aerial smokejumper usage in the United States. I assess landscape and environmental factors of their deployment using a detailed nine-year record of smokejumper activity in combination with terrain, fuels, and transportation network data. Specifically, the research seeks to identify commonalities in location (proximity), terrain, fuels, fire occurrence, and accessibility of smokejumper actions that inform current usage and identify opportunities for improved utilization. Terrain parameters (steep, rugged, inaccessible) of the western U.S. were classified and a baseline travel time grid was created (30 meter resolution). Fires in which smokejumpers responded were compared with all fires that …
A Quantitative Study With Online Collaborative Learning In A Computer Literacy Course, Kevin Engellant
A Quantitative Study With Online Collaborative Learning In A Computer Literacy Course, Kevin Engellant
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Collaboration, along with critical thinking, communication and creativity, is one of the four C's identified in the Partnership for 21st Century Skills Framework. The word collaboration is becoming a common part of many conversations. This study explored which type of learning instruction, collaborative learning in an online environment or individual learning in an online environment, is the most effective in a beginning online computer literacy course. The problem underlying this study was that despite the popularity of collaboration in education, many educators are not properly implementing an environment that encourages and supports effective collaboration. The purpose of this quantitative study …
Changing Participation In Guided Interactive Shared Reading: A Study Of Early Childhood Teachers' Implementation And Children's Engagement, Nanci Lynn Waterhouse
Changing Participation In Guided Interactive Shared Reading: A Study Of Early Childhood Teachers' Implementation And Children's Engagement, Nanci Lynn Waterhouse
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
In the context of a pilot project to implement program-wide change by integrating academic and behavioral supports through an early childhood multi-tiered system of support, one program was challenged to strengthen two process components of its model: 1) the implementation of an evidence-informed approach to shared reading as recommended in their newly adopted curriculum and 2) the provision of effective professional development (PD) in support of practice implementation. The embedded case study describes the impact of a PD model on two teachers' attempts to integrate dialogic reading (Lonigan & Whitehurst, 1998) and related strategies in a whole class setting through …
Regulation Of Silica-Induced Pulmonary Inflammation, Rupa Biswas
Regulation Of Silica-Induced Pulmonary Inflammation, Rupa Biswas
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Inhalation of crystalline silica for an extended period of time results in inflammation in the lungs, which plays a pivotal role in the development of silicosis, a progressive, inflammatory and fibrotic pulmonary disease. Inhaled silica particles are encountered by alveolar macrophages (AM) in the lungs. Previous studies have indicated the role of scavenger receptors in binding of environmental particles and also demonstrated that AM recognize and bind silica particles through class A scavenger receptors (SRA) expressed on their surface. MARCO (Macrophage Receptor with Collagenous Structure) is a SRA family receptor and the predominant receptor for recognition and binding of silica …
Assessing The Determinants Facilitating Local Vulnerabilities And Adaptive Capacities To Climate Change Impacts In High Mountain Areas: A Case Study Of Northern Ladakh, India, Kimiko Nygaard Barrett
Assessing The Determinants Facilitating Local Vulnerabilities And Adaptive Capacities To Climate Change Impacts In High Mountain Areas: A Case Study Of Northern Ladakh, India, Kimiko Nygaard Barrett
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Climate change is increasingly redefining the dialectic exchange between human systems and ecological processes. While the rhetoric of climate change is articulated within broad arenas of governance and policy, the realities of climate change are experienced at the local scale. Effective adaptation measures must therefore be commensurate with local resources, needs and objectives while remaining aligned with larger decision-making efforts. The impacts of climate change are heterogeneous and vary with geographic context. Biophysical parameters interface with socioeconomic and political forces to greatly influence the outcome of climate-related risks at the local level. In the high mountains of the western Himalayas …
The Impacts Of Removing Wildfire On Pinus Ponderosa Resistance Against Dendroctonus Ponderosae, Sharon Metzger Hood
The Impacts Of Removing Wildfire On Pinus Ponderosa Resistance Against Dendroctonus Ponderosae, Sharon Metzger Hood
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Disturbance and disturbance interactions drive multiple ecosystem processes over multiple spatial and temporal scales. I studied the role of frequent, low-severity fire in Pinus ponderosa (ponderosa pine) forests in altering the success of the irruptive insect Dendroctonus ponderosae (mountain pine beetle (MPB)). I had three overarching research questions: (1) What are the best predictors of ponderosa pine resin flow, a trait related to MPB attack success, and how do these predictors relate to tree growth?; (2) Are predictors of resin flow also predictors of MPB attack success and are they affected by changes to wildfire disturbance regimes?; (3) How do …
The Validity Of Self- Versus Other Reports Of Adhd Symptoms In College Students: Cognitive And Academic Achievement Outcomes, Eric Aune
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Despite the abundance of studies investigating Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in children and adults, little research has focused on ADHD and comorbid learning disabilities (LD) in college students. The dearth of research in this population is becoming increasingly important given that ADHD and LD are the two most commonly reported and diagnosed disabilities in higher academic institutions (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011). As a result, clinicians' are continually faced with the difficult task of determining sensitive and valid assessment measures to use with this population. While some overlap exists between college students and younger and older counterparts, research has shown …
Importance Of Leadership Competencies In College And University Staff Athletic Trainers: Perceptions Of Head Athletic Trainers, Janelle Lynn Handlos
Importance Of Leadership Competencies In College And University Staff Athletic Trainers: Perceptions Of Head Athletic Trainers, Janelle Lynn Handlos
Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers
Importance of Leadership Competencies in College and University Staff Athletic Trainers: Perceptions of Head Athletic Trainers This quantitative study utilized a survey design to determine the level of importance head athletic trainers at the college and university level place on their staff athletic trainers displaying previously identified leadership competencies. Data were collected using a web-based questionnaire designed for the study. Participants were 326 college and university head athletic trainers closely resembling the characteristics of the population. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics to determine the level of importance assigned to each competency and the demographic responses of participants. Inferential statistics …