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Molecular Understanding And Design Of Deep Eutectic Solvents And Proteins Using Computer Simulations And Machine Learning, Usman Lame Abbas
Molecular Understanding And Design Of Deep Eutectic Solvents And Proteins Using Computer Simulations And Machine Learning, Usman Lame Abbas
Theses and Dissertations--Chemical and Materials Engineering
Hydrophobic deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as excellent extractants. A major challenge is the lack of an efficient tool to discover DES candidates. Currently, the search relies heavily on the researchers’ intuition or a trial-and-error process, which leads to a low success rate or bypassing of promising candidates. DES performance depends on the heterogeneous hydrogen bond environment formed by multiple hydrogen bond donors and acceptors. Understanding this heterogeneous hydrogen bond environment can help develop principles for designing high performance DESs for extraction and other separation applications. This work investigates the structure and dynamics of hydrogen bonds in hydrophobic DESs …
Understanding Of Processing Additives Influence In Tin Halide Perovskites: Chemistry, Defect, And Photovoltaic Performance, Syed Rahmath Ullah Joy
Understanding Of Processing Additives Influence In Tin Halide Perovskites: Chemistry, Defect, And Photovoltaic Performance, Syed Rahmath Ullah Joy
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Metal halide perovskite semiconductors have attracted much interest for various applications, such as solar cells, light emitting diodes, photodetectors, and lasers, due to their excellent optoelectronic properties. Photovoltaic cell development is centered on Pb-based perovskites, which have equal photovoltaic performance compared to the traditional silicon photovoltaic. But concerns arising from the usage of toxic lead metal have motivated the research community to seek an alternative derivative. Among those, tin halide perovskites show much promise as an alternative to Pb-counterparts due to their ideal bandgap for single junction photovoltaics and similar optoelectronic properties to Pb perovskites. Nevertheless, tin perovskites suffer from …
Water-Soluble Palladium, Copper, And Nickel Catalysts And Their Formation In Ligand-Free Suzuki-Miyaura Cross-Coupling Reactions, Priya Karna
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Transition-metal catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura (SM) cross coupling is a powerful synthetic method for constructing carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds in designing organic compounds, agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and precursors for materials. However, the nature of catalysis and identity of the transition metal catalysts used in these reactions remain under debate or unknown. This dissertation reports the studies of three metals: Pd, Cu, and Ni. Pd-nanocluster catalysts and their formation in ligand-free SM reactions with Pd(II) nitrate as a precatalyst was investigated. The catalysts are water-soluble neutral Pd tetramer and trimer in their singlet electronic states as identified by UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and are formed …
Surface Modification Of Carbon-Based Electrodes For Electrochemical Conversion Processes: Oxygen Reduction Reaction And Bicarbonate Conversion, Udari Shyamika Kodithuwakku Arachchige
Surface Modification Of Carbon-Based Electrodes For Electrochemical Conversion Processes: Oxygen Reduction Reaction And Bicarbonate Conversion, Udari Shyamika Kodithuwakku Arachchige
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and conversion of bicarbonate into value-added chemicals are two significant electrochemical processes for energy storage and conversion. ORR is an important electrochemical reaction in fuel cells and metal-air batteries that provide power conversion and storage capacity, respectively, for portable electronics, and electric vehicles. However, the performance of catalysts (e.g., platinum-based) is critically limited by slow kinetics, inefficient four-electron pathway, and surface deactivation. This limited performance of platinum-based catalysts, the scarcity of platinum, and vulnerable supply chains for critical minerals require the development of alternative electrocatalysts now more than ever. Carbon-based materials possess several key properties that …
Translating Chemistry, Structure, And Processing To The Solid-State Morphology And Function Of Organic Semiconductors Through Computational Modeling And Simulations, Chamikara D. Karunasena
Translating Chemistry, Structure, And Processing To The Solid-State Morphology And Function Of Organic Semiconductors Through Computational Modeling And Simulations, Chamikara D. Karunasena
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
The immense synthetic design space and material versatility have driven the exploration and development of organic semiconductors (OSC) over several decades. While many OSC designs focus on the chemistries of the molecular or polymer building blocks, a priori, multiscale control over the solid-state morphology is required for effective application of the active layer in a given technology. However, molecular assembly during solid-state formation is a complex function interconnecting the building block chemistry and the processing environment. Insufficient knowledge as to how these aspects engage, especially at the atomistic and molecular scales, has so far limited the ability to predict …
Developing And Deploying Data-Driven Tools For Accelerated Design Of Organic Semiconductors, Vinayak Bhat
Developing And Deploying Data-Driven Tools For Accelerated Design Of Organic Semiconductors, Vinayak Bhat
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Organic semiconductors have gained widespread attention due to their potential applications in flexible, low-cost, lightweight electronics, energy storage and generation technologies, and sensing applications. However, developing new organic semiconductors with improved performance remains a significant challenge due to the vast chemical space of possible molecular and materials structures. Furthermore, the high cost and time-consuming nature of experimental synthesis and characterization hinder the rapid discovery of new materials. To overcome these challenges, this dissertation presents a data-driven approach to organic semiconductor discovery. The primary focus of this work is the development of data-driven tools, namely machine learning models, to predict critical …
Exploring The Role Of Ring Annulation In Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons For Organic Electronic Applications, Tanner Smith
Exploring The Role Of Ring Annulation In Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons For Organic Electronic Applications, Tanner Smith
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Organic materials offer promising potential for the next generation of electronic devices, as their tunability, processability, and low-temperature manufacturing make them a cheap and versatile alternative to traditional silicon-based electronics. The ability to systematically alter the electronic properties of organic materials is vital for their incorporation into device applications. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of significant interest for organic electronic applications, as relevant properties are highly dependent on their size, structure, and functionalities, and thus can be tuned to fit a wide variety of applications. Due to the enormous number of structural isomers available in larger PAHs, the development of …
Development And Biological Evaluation Of Selective Small-Molecule Inhibitors Of The Human Cytochrome P450 1b1, Austin Hachey
Development And Biological Evaluation Of Selective Small-Molecule Inhibitors Of The Human Cytochrome P450 1b1, Austin Hachey
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
The human cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) is an emerging target for small- molecule therapeutics. Several solid tumors overexpress CYP1B1 to the degree that it has been referred to as a universal tumor antigen. Conversely, its expression is low in healthy tissues. CYP1B1 may drive tumorigenesis through promoting the formation of reactive toxins from environmental pollutants or from endogenous hormone substrates. Additionally, the expression of CYP1B1 in tumors is associated with resistance to several common chemotherapies and with poor prognoses in cancer patients. However, inhibiting CYP1B1 with small molecules has been demonstrated in cellular and murine model systems to reverse this …
First Principles Calculations To Investigate Surface And Catalytic Properties Of Materials For Green Energy Generation, Keerthan Raghavendra Rao
First Principles Calculations To Investigate Surface And Catalytic Properties Of Materials For Green Energy Generation, Keerthan Raghavendra Rao
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Climate change due to greenhouse gas build up in the earth’s atmosphere is an existential threat to humanity. To mitigate climate change, a significant shift from fossil fuels is necessary. Over the years, several renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal etc. have been explored with the aim providing carbon-free energy. In this work, we focus on using density functional theory (DFT) methods to investigate key functional properties of materials of interest for applications in solar cells and catalytic conversion for energy generation. We show geometric effects of carboxylic acid binding on a transition metal surface to impact the deoxygenation …
Application Of Mass Spectrometry For The Characterization Of Synthetic Oligomers And Natural Lignin, Poorya Kamali
Application Of Mass Spectrometry For The Characterization Of Synthetic Oligomers And Natural Lignin, Poorya Kamali
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
As part of the ongoing effort to substitute finite fuel and chemical resources with renewable ones, biomass is emerging as one of the most promising sources. Biomass consists of three main components of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Traditionally, cellulose has been used extensively in pulping industry, while lignin has been considered waste and is burned to generate heat. Lignin, a complex aromatic polymer component of biomass, has the potential to be used as a source of aromatic chemicals and pharmaceutical synthons. The recalcitrant nature of lignin, the lack of effective lignin breakdown methods and analytical techniques to analyze it are …
Development Of An Effective Au:Pd Bimetallic Heterogeneous Catalyst For Oxidative Lignin Depolymerization To Low Molecular Weight Aromatics, Gayan P. Karunasinghe
Development Of An Effective Au:Pd Bimetallic Heterogeneous Catalyst For Oxidative Lignin Depolymerization To Low Molecular Weight Aromatics, Gayan P. Karunasinghe
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
The principal concept behind biorefining involves the transformation of lignocellulosic biomass into valuable products and energy resources. Historically, biorefinery strategies for lignocellulosic biomass have primarily focused on improving the conversion of cellulose into ethanol, often neglecting the underutilized lignin component. Lignin consists of phenolic subunits, from which it follows that value-added products can be obtained from lignin depolymerization. Unfortunately, lignin utilization is particularly challenging due to its high structural irregularity and recalcitrance. The goal of this study was to develop an AuPd/Li-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH) bimetallic catalyst for efficient lignin depolymerization, resulting in the production of high-value aromatic compounds. …
Molecular Understanding Of Zwitterions And Quantum Computing For Sustainability, Manh Tien Nguyen
Molecular Understanding Of Zwitterions And Quantum Computing For Sustainability, Manh Tien Nguyen
Theses and Dissertations--Chemical and Materials Engineering
The sustainable development of society needs sustainable energy solutions and the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. One key subject in this area is the development of safe and efficient ion-based batteries. Moreover, CO2 capture is a crucial pathway in mitigating emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. Ongoing efforts are to improve both technologies' safety and efficiency. This thesis presents our efforts to conduct computational research on understanding advanced zwitterionic electrolytes and CO2 capture. Chapters 2-4 illustrate the computational research to understand ionic solvation in zwitterionic electrolytes. Solid-state electrolytes are essential for safer batteries. While solid polymer electrolytes …
Mass Spectrometric Analysis Of Lignin Model Compounds: Fundamental Investigations Of Ionization And Supramolecular Interactions For Lignocellulosic Biomass Applications, Kimberly Dean
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Lignocellulosic biomass is pivotal for the development of renewable energy sources and materials essential to mitigate the exploitation of fossil fuels causing climate change and environmental pollution issues. The conversion of biomass into fuel requires the hydrolysis of cellulose and a biproduct of this process is the isolation of millions of tons of lignin as biorefinery waste. Lignin is a complex high molecular weight polymer whose structure remains undefined and critically limits potential industrial applications of lignocellulosic biomass. The advancement of analytical methods for structural elucidation of lignin and its ensemble of phenolic compounds is therefore essential to advance this …
1,2-Diamination Of Alkenes Via Reduction Of 1,2,3-Triazolinium Ions, Setareh Saryazdi
1,2-Diamination Of Alkenes Via Reduction Of 1,2,3-Triazolinium Ions, Setareh Saryazdi
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
1,2-Diamine substructures are prevalent functional motifs in natural products, pharmaceutical compounds, and ligands. The interesting functionalities of 1,2-diamines have inspired many synthetic chemists to design various methodologies for preparing these structures from simple precursors such as alkenes. In this work, we described two different but related methods using simple and easily accessible reagents for 1,2-diamination of alkenes. In the first method, an alkene undergoes 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition with an organic azide to form a 1,2,3-triazoline. Subsequent N-alkylation of the generated 1,2,3-triazoline gives the 1,2,3-triazolinium ion, which is then hydrogenated over Raney Ni with a balloon of H2 to produce …
Application Of Mass Spectrometry For Characterization Of Plant-Based Phenolics And Alkaloids, Masoumeh Dorrani
Application Of Mass Spectrometry For Characterization Of Plant-Based Phenolics And Alkaloids, Masoumeh Dorrani
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Plant-derived compounds have the potential to produce value-added compounds with a variety of applications. For example, the lignin part of the lignocellulosic biomass, produced in large quantities as waste from the paper and pulp industries, is a rich source of phenolics with potential applications in the renewable energy sector, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. On the other hand, plant alkaloids are the primary source for developing plant-derived therapeutics. Unfortunately, the recalcitrant nature of plant cell walls, low extraction yields of small secondary metabolites, and the lack of effective analytical methods for a rapid and accurate identification of plant-based compounds and plant’s …
Synthesis And In Situ Characterization Of Intercalated Transition Metal Oxide Nanomaterials Investigated For Novel Cathode Applications, Ahamed Ullah
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
To develop an effective battery cathode material that can be useful for future batteries, the thermal stability and ion diffusion dynamics need to be well understood. In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a popular and proven technique to study the evolution of local structures during the dynamic processes in the cathode materials. This dissertation will demonstrate the application of high-resolution imaging and in situ heating and biasing in the TEM to study the structure and composition, morphology change, and ion diffusion in the cathode materials.
The three chapters in this dissertation will be focused on the two cathode materials: …
The Design And Synthesis Of New Organic Dithiols For Environmental Applications, Shashika Nadishani Bandara
The Design And Synthesis Of New Organic Dithiols For Environmental Applications, Shashika Nadishani Bandara
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
A thiol molecule, 2,6-pyridinediamidoethanethiol (PB9), was synthesized based on the pyridine-2,6-dicarboxamide scaffold with appended cysteamine groups. PB9 acts as an effective chelator for Pb(II) due to multiple binding sites (N3S2) through irreversible binding precipitating Pb(II). Removal of aqueous Pb(II) from solution was demonstrated by exploring the effects of time, initial PB9:Pb(II) ratios, pH, exposure time, and solution temperature. After 15 min the Pb(II) concentrations were reduced from 50.00 ppm to 0.30 ppm (99.4%) and 0.25 ppm (99.5%) for PB9:Pb ratios of 1:1 and 2:1, respectively. Removal of > 93% Pb(II) was observed over multiple pH values with …
Development Of Fluorescence Based Approaches To Understand Astrocyte Biology In The Context Of Nicotine And Nicotinic Receptor Activity, Surya P. Aryal
Development Of Fluorescence Based Approaches To Understand Astrocyte Biology In The Context Of Nicotine And Nicotinic Receptor Activity, Surya P. Aryal
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Smoking and tobacco use (STU) is a major global health problem and worldwide more than six million people die due to tobacco related diseases each year. Although majority of smokers try to quit smoking several times in their life, traditional therapeutic approaches, which focus only on neuronal cells, have a very low success rate. Understanding the effect of nicotine on glial cells, synaptic communication and blood vasculature in the brain can provide further insights on the neurobiology of substance abuse and can potentially help to design better therapeutic approaches. Glial cells are non-excitable cells in the brain which do not …
Investigating The Physical Stability Of Amorphous Pharmaceutical Formulations, Travis W. Jarrells
Investigating The Physical Stability Of Amorphous Pharmaceutical Formulations, Travis W. Jarrells
Theses and Dissertations--Pharmacy
Amorphous formulations, including amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs), consisting of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) intimately mixed in a polymeric matrix, are an attractive formulation approach to improve drug delivery, dissolution, and solubility. However, an amorphous API in an ASD is in a higher energy state compared to the crystalline drug and results in most ASDs being inherently unstable. The polymer helps to stabilize the amorphous drug against crystallization such that the resulting homogenous mixture maintains its solubility advantage relative to the crystalline form. One challenge of ASDs is that the presence of impurities including crystals or residual solvent, variations in …
A Study Of The Analysis Of Hemp-Derived Oil Products: Development Of A Method For The Analysis Of Phytocannabinoids In Medicinal Products, Erin Johnson
Theses and Dissertations--Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences
Human interactions with cannabis have a history spanning millennia as a source of fiber, food, and medicine. The plant came across Asia, Europe, and Africa with the movements of people and travelers eventually coming to the Americas with European explorers. In colonizing North America, cannabis fiber was key to the production of canvas and ropes for ships. Although fiber was the driver for cannabis production in the United States, medicinal uses were prevalent and propelled the eventual regulations. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 mandated accurate labeling on drugs such as cannabis followed by the Marihuana Tax Act …
Photocatalytic Degradation Of Lignin By Supported Silver Nanoparticles, Ning Wei
Photocatalytic Degradation Of Lignin By Supported Silver Nanoparticles, Ning Wei
Theses and Dissertations--Chemical and Materials Engineering
Lignin is the second most abundant form of biomass on earth. The phenolic structure and high carbon to oxygen ratio make lignin an attractive renewable source of fuel and chemicals. However, its recalcitrance and heterogeneous nature prove difficult for decomposing lignin’s polymer structure and separation of the products. This work has focused on the use of low-energy catalytic approaches to overcome these barriers. A mimic of the lignin degrading enzyme laccase, consisting of a copper cluster Cu4Py4I4 modified with AgNO3, was developed to function similarly to the laccase active site. The prepared copper complex solution was found to be active …
Synthesis Of 6,6- And 7,7-Difluoro-1-Acetamidopyrrolizidines And Their Oxidation Catalyzed By The Nonheme Fe Oxygenase Lolo, Nabin Panth
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
One of the remarkable steps in loline alkaloid biosynthesis is the installation of an ether bridge between two unactivated C atoms in 1-exo-acetamidopyrrolizidine (AcAP). LolO, a 2-oxoglutarate-dependent nonheme Fe oxygenase, catalyzes both the hydroxylation of AcAP and the resulting alcohol's cycloetherification to give N-acetylnornoline (NANL). The mechanism of hydroxylation is well understood, but the mechanism of the oxacyclization is not. I synthesized difluorinated analogs of AcAP in an attempt to further understand the mechanism of the unusual cycloetherification step.
I prepared 6,6-F2-AcAP in eight steps from N,O-protected 4-oxoproline. The key step was a Dieckmann …
Crystal Engineering Of Asymmetric And Pyrene Fused Annulenes For Use In Organic Electronic Materials, Garrett Fregoso
Crystal Engineering Of Asymmetric And Pyrene Fused Annulenes For Use In Organic Electronic Materials, Garrett Fregoso
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Since the development of TiPS Pentacene, the use of trialkylsilylethynyl groups has become a commonly utilized moiety for stabilizing, solubilizing, and directing crystal packing of acenes and acene-like compounds, leading to the development of a well-defined series of trends that aid in the prediction of crystal packing for the development of organic semiconducting materials. While these trends have been extensively studied in mainly symmetric linear systems, it is important to determine how, if at all, asymmetry of the aromatic core affects these well-defined trends. This constitutes the basis of Chapter 2, which explores the crystal engineering and physical properties of …
The Role Of Charge On Dna Packaging And Integrity Within Reconstituted Peptide-Dna Assemblies, Ehigbai Oikeh
The Role Of Charge On Dna Packaging And Integrity Within Reconstituted Peptide-Dna Assemblies, Ehigbai Oikeh
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
In nature, DNA exists primarily in a highly compacted form. The compaction of DNA in vivo is mediated by cationic proteins; histone in somatic nuclei and arginine-rich peptides called protamines in sperm chromatin. The packaging in the sperm nucleus is significantly higher than somatic nuclei resulting in a final volume roughly 1/20th that of a somatic nucleus. This tight packaging results in a near crystalline packaging of the DNA helices. While the dense packaging of DNA in sperm nuclei is considered essential for both efficient genetic delivery as well as DNA protection against damage by mutagens and oxidative species, …
Nanomaterial Synthesis And Real Time Investigation Of Thermal Effects On Nanomaterial And Nano-Interfaces For Real World Applications, Rose H. Pham
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
As interest in nanomaterials and nanotechnology continues to grow, so does the need for more efficient and economical synthesis methods to keep up with the demand. The applications for nanomaterials are seemingly endless as they have functions in energy, biomedical, environmental, and many more. Working to develop different morphologies and sizes of nanomaterials will further help expand its utility. With the use of advanced characterization techniques such as in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM), real time studies on the effects of external forces on nanomaterials are possible under controlled environments. This will give insight on how nanomaterials will perform in …
Development Of Accurate And Efficient Computational Methodologies For Predicting Protein-Ligand And Protein-Protein Binding Free Energies, Alexander Hamilton Williams
Development Of Accurate And Efficient Computational Methodologies For Predicting Protein-Ligand And Protein-Protein Binding Free Energies, Alexander Hamilton Williams
Theses and Dissertations--Pharmacy
Computational modeling is an invaluable tool in the drug discovery process either for small ligand or protein therapeutics. The widespread availability of protein X-Ray Crystal and Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM) structures has allowed for more accurate molecular dynamics (MD) simulations that are not reliant on methods such as homology modeling, which may produce structures that require significant computational time to demonstrate their stability. In this thesis we describe several novel methodologies for the computationally efficient modeling of protein/ligand and protein/protein complexes that may be employed within both large-scale virtual screenings and lead compound optimization. These methodologies may also be utilized in …
Building Tools For Improved Modulation Of The Human Gabaa Receptor, A Central Nervous System Target For The Treatment Of Anxiety, Garrett Edward Zinck
Building Tools For Improved Modulation Of The Human Gabaa Receptor, A Central Nervous System Target For The Treatment Of Anxiety, Garrett Edward Zinck
Theses and Dissertations--Pharmacy
In the U.S., anxiety is recognized as an increasing range of mentally and physically debilitating psychiatric health disorders with significant economic repercussions. Over the last 20 years, several novel anti-anxiety therapies have entered the drug development pipeline, but none have made it to market.
The work in this dissertation focused on structurally modifying valerenic acid (VA), a structurally unique carboxylated sesquiterpene acid found in Valeriana officinalis. VA is putatively reported to have allosteric modulatory activity of the human GABAA receptor, a ligand-gated ion channel responsible for attenuating neurotransmissions. Structural modeling of VA’s GABAA receptor interaction suggests that …
Design, Synthesis, And Anticancer Properties Of Ru(Ii) Complexes With Organometallic, “Expanded” Bipyridine, And O,O’-Chelating Ligands, Raphael Ryan
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Cancer is a worldwide public health crisis that requires new and improved drugs to be developed to extend survival rates and improve quality of life for the patient. Platinum-based drugs are used in approximately 50% of cancer treatment regimens. These drugs are highly effective in many kinds of cancer; however, cancers can develop platinum resistance and these drugs have troubling side effects that reduced their use and efficacy. To overcome these disadvantages, many other metals have been studied for their anticancer properties. Notably, the anticancer properties of ruthenium-based agents have drawn considerable attention with multiple ruthenium complexes entering clinical trials. …
Computational Insights On Medicinal Chemistry Targeting Cyp450s, Alexander D. Fenton
Computational Insights On Medicinal Chemistry Targeting Cyp450s, Alexander D. Fenton
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Modern-day medicinal chemistry has provided researchers with a wide variety of tools to not only gather greater insight from their data, but also to generate data in new ways. One such tool is the construction of computational protein models from crystallographic datasets, and their subsequent use to understand the structure-activity relationships of protein-ligand complexes. These models can be utilized for their predictive power to inform the synthesis of, and improvement of, lead compounds. It is the goal of this work to employ such models to the CYP450 enzyme system such that potent and selective inhibitors can be designed, evaluated biologically, …
Plasmon Enhanced Single Molecule Fluorescence In Zero Mode Waveguides (Zmws), Abdullah Masud
Plasmon Enhanced Single Molecule Fluorescence In Zero Mode Waveguides (Zmws), Abdullah Masud
Theses and Dissertations--Chemistry
Plasmonic nanostructures are an extensive research focus due to their ability to modify the photophysical properties of nearby fluorophores. Surface plasmons (SP), defined as the collective oscillation of delocalized electrons, are the fundamental characteristic primarily responsible for altering those photophysical properties. Studying fluorophores at the single-molecule level has received significant attention since more specific information can be extracted from single molecule-based studies, which otherwise could be obscured in ensemble studies. However, single-molecule studies are inherently challenging because the signal from a single molecule is usually dim, making it difficult to detect. The situation is even worse in a crowded environment …