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One Step Closer To A Better Starling Trap, James R. Thiele
One Step Closer To A Better Starling Trap, James R. Thiele
Human–Wildlife Interactions
European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) are an invasive species in the United States that damage agriculture, personal property, and threaten human health and safety. The U.S. Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services provides technical support to mitigate damage by controlling starling populations at concentrated animal feeding operations, landfills, utilities, and urban areas. Wildlife Services uses DRC-1339, a registered toxicant, to reduce starling populations. Trapping can also be an effective tool but requires more time at a higher cost than DRC-1339. Trapping starlings, however, may be needed to provide a viable alternative to mitigate damage in areas where toxicant use may …
Black Vulture Conflict And Management In The United States: Damage Trends, Management Overview, And Research Needs, Bryan M. Kluever, Morgan B. Pfeiffer, Scott C. Barras, Brett G. Dunlap, Lee A. Humberg
Black Vulture Conflict And Management In The United States: Damage Trends, Management Overview, And Research Needs, Bryan M. Kluever, Morgan B. Pfeiffer, Scott C. Barras, Brett G. Dunlap, Lee A. Humberg
Human–Wildlife Interactions
Contrary to rapid declines of many vulture (Accipitridae, Cathartidea) species worldwide, black vulture (Coragyps atratus) populations are increasing and expanding their range in North America. Vultures exhibit complex behaviors and can adapt to any human-dominated landscape or land use. These traits, combined with population growth and range expansion, have contributed to increased human–vulture conflicts. Our goal was to summarize the current status and trends in human–black vulture conflicts (hereafter human–vulture conflicts), review available management strategies, identify knowledge gaps, and provide recommendations to enhance management and understanding of this species and the associated conflicts. We found human–vulture conflicts are …
Bird-Window Collision Mitigation At Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Utah, Hunter Martin
Bird-Window Collision Mitigation At Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Utah, Hunter Martin
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Bird-window collisions are often not thought about as if they are a major problem to bird populations worldwide. This is not the case as bird populations are threatened by these collisions. In the United States alone it is estimated that 97.6 - 975.6 million birds fatally collide with human-made windows annually, and another 16 to 42 million collide in Canada per year. Our focus is to investigate a possible window collision problem and explore different mitigation efforts to prevent these collisions at the USU-Brigham City campus (Brigham City, Utah, 84302). We hope to determine how many fatal bird-window collisions are …
The Importance Of Experiment Replication In Understanding Distribution Of 'Alalā Seed Retention Time, Camilla Moses
The Importance Of Experiment Replication In Understanding Distribution Of 'Alalā Seed Retention Time, Camilla Moses
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Hawaiian forests have suffered damages from climate change, introduced plants, and introduced animals that trample or graze on the native vegetation. The 'Alalā, a native Hawaiian bird that is being reintroduced from captivity, is a disperser of native plants and can facilitate the restoration of native vegetation in Hawaiian forests. If the seed retention time and the flight paths of the 'Alalā are known, we can estimate the distribution of the seeds they disperse and see the effect the species has on forest restoration. In this study, the seed retention time of the 'Alalā is predicted from body mass using …
Identification And Characterization Of Pd-L1 In Bovine Placentas, Andre Nguyen
Identification And Characterization Of Pd-L1 In Bovine Placentas, Andre Nguyen
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Successful bovine pregnancy requires that the maternal immune system modulate T lymphocytes. Program death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) is an inhibitory protein that is associated with immune tolerance and modulation of T cells. Previous studies have linked PD-L1 to suppressing T cell activity and modulating cytokine production, therefore, inducing maternal tolerance and acceptance of the fetus. PD-L1 may be a possible mechanism involved in establishing successful bovine pregnancies. To this day, no evidence of PD-L1 RNA or protein was found in bovine placentas. We hypothesize that PD-L1 is present in the bovine placenta and its expression differs between trimesters. To analyze the …
The Effects Of Estrogen And Arousal On Latent Inhibition, Michael Herron
The Effects Of Estrogen And Arousal On Latent Inhibition, Michael Herron
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
The behaviors of humans and animals are dependent on neurotransmitters and hormones that affect attention, alertness, and associative learning. These include the hormone estrogen (which plays an interesting role in cognition and attentional processes) and the neurotransmitter orexin (involved in wakefulness, arousal and goal-directed behaviors). Here we evaluated the roles of orexin receptors and estrogen in Latent Inhibition (LI), a measure of attention and associative learning. Latent inhibition is a behavioral phenomenon in which an organism's ability to associate new meaning to a familiar previously inconsequential (pre-exposed) stimulus is reduced when compared to associating meaning to a novel stimulus (non …
Furries: The Emergence Of The Modern-Day Anthropomorphism Culture, Nate Bee
Furries: The Emergence Of The Modern-Day Anthropomorphism Culture, Nate Bee
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
A brief contextualization of what a furry is, and potential origins/explanations for the emergence of the modern-day furry.
The Role Of Dogs In Ancient Mesopotamia, Hannah Chester
The Role Of Dogs In Ancient Mesopotamia, Hannah Chester
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
This research summarizes the role of dogs in ancient Mesopotamian society, with an emphasis on the religious aspect of dogs in regards to the goddess Gula.
Examining Ages Of Birds That Have Fatally Collided With Windows At Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Ut, Taylor Kenyon
Examining Ages Of Birds That Have Fatally Collided With Windows At Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Ut, Taylor Kenyon
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Around 97.6-975.6 million birds fatally collide with windows each year in North America. Bird age could be a contributor to the collisions. The central focus of our research project is to determine if there is a statistically significant relationship between the age of an individual bird and the likelihood of a fatal collision with a human-made window. The data collection method that will be used for this project is a hybrid of primary and secondary research. Personally collected data regarding window collisions, will be obtained from daily surveys of the Classroom and Student Services (CSS) Building at the Utah State …
Analyzing Fatal Bird-Window Collisions Occurring On Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Utah, Jacob Larkin
Analyzing Fatal Bird-Window Collisions Occurring On Usu's C&Ss Building, Brigham City, Utah, Jacob Larkin
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Fatal bird window collisions are often overlooked as minimally damaging to bird populations or viewed as inevitable collateral damage of human habitat expansion. In reality, these unnecessary collisions are truly monumental in number, and prove to be a serious threat to bird populations, especially endangered bird species. In the United States alone it is estimated that between 365 - 988 million birds fatally collide with man-made windows annually. We are focusing our study on fatal bird-window collisions occurring on the Classroom and Student Services Building (C&SS building) at the USU campus in Brigham City, UT 84302. We have selected this …
"Botley, You Need To Listen!" Exploring Young Children's Interactions With Robots While Learning To Code, Selendra Lewis, Rebecca Peterson, Kathleen Bullock
"Botley, You Need To Listen!" Exploring Young Children's Interactions With Robots While Learning To Code, Selendra Lewis, Rebecca Peterson, Kathleen Bullock
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Recently, there's been a surge of research about child-robot interactions as robots are being used in classrooms and homes in increasing numbers. Many of these studies are conducted in a laboratory-like setting followed by a survey. This project is unique in that we primarily rely on observational data in classrooms where students are using robots to learn math and Computational Thinking skills including Spatial Reasoning, Algorithmic Thinking, Debugging, and Decomposition. While the main purpose of the larger project is to develop curriculum and assessments for these skills, the structure of the FSRS project proposal allows us to also analyze these …
Altered Toxin Binding Or Access To The Binding Site, What Changes In The Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels Of Garter Snakes?, Kenyon Mitchell
Altered Toxin Binding Or Access To The Binding Site, What Changes In The Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels Of Garter Snakes?, Kenyon Mitchell
Fall Student Research Symposium 2020
Voltage-gated sodium ion channels are required for the generation and propagation of action potentials in vertebrate nerve and muscle cells. The neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) binds in the channel pore and blocks sodium channel function. Some populations of garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) have evolved resistance to TTX in part due to amino acid substitutions in the pore of the voltage-gated sodium channel expressed in skeletal muscle fibers (tsNaV1.4). We have previously demonstrated that the four amino acid substitutions in tsNaV1.4 from snake populations in California reduce TTX binding. These four amino acid substitutions are at or near an amino acid position …
Assessing The Effects Of Cold Storage Regimes Of North American Bombus Queens: Long Live The Humble Queen, Thuy - Tien Thai Lindsay
Assessing The Effects Of Cold Storage Regimes Of North American Bombus Queens: Long Live The Humble Queen, Thuy - Tien Thai Lindsay
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Bumble bees (Bombus) provide critical pollination services for wild plants and crops. They are generalist pollinators, and do not depend on one singular floral type. Native bumble bees are adapted to pollinating many native plants, such as blueberries, squash, and tomatoes. A critical component of bumble bee pollination in the greenhouse tomato industry is the domestication of commercially bred colonies. However, the domestication of Bombus is pretty early in its development, and not all aspects of the bumble bee life cycle is fully understood. This thesis addresses one of the major obstacles in domestication, which is successful mimicking …
The Role Of The Recently Deorphanized G-Protein Coupled Receptor, Gpr171, In Morphine Tolerance And Withdrawal, Leela Afrose
The Role Of The Recently Deorphanized G-Protein Coupled Receptor, Gpr171, In Morphine Tolerance And Withdrawal, Leela Afrose
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Opioid analgesics, such as morphine, represent the gold standard pain killer and the most frequently used drugs for the treatment of moderate to severe pain. Despite being a potent analgesic, morphine has unwanted and dangerous side effects with repeated use, such as tolerance and withdrawal. Tolerance is a state when a person no longer responds to a drug and a higher dose is required to achieve the same initial pain relief. Withdrawal is a set of undesirable psychological and physiological symptoms that occur after someone stops taking a drug or reduces the dose. Morphine tolerance and withdrawal play a vital …
Plant Single-Cell Metabolomics—Challenges And Perspectives, Leonardo Perez De Souza, Monica Borghi, Alisdair R. Fernie
Plant Single-Cell Metabolomics—Challenges And Perspectives, Leonardo Perez De Souza, Monica Borghi, Alisdair R. Fernie
Biology Faculty Publications
Omics approaches for investigating biological systems were introduced in the mid-1990s and quickly consolidated to become a fundamental pillar of modern biology. The idea of measuring the whole complement of genes, transcripts, proteins, and metabolites has since become widespread and routinely adopted in the pursuit of an infinity of scientific questions. Incremental improvements over technical aspects such as sampling, sensitivity, cost, and throughput pushed even further the boundaries of what these techniques can achieve. In this context, single-cell genomics and transcriptomics quickly became a well-established tool to answer fundamental questions challenging to assess at a whole tissue level. Following a …
Stream Dissolved Organic Matter In Permafrost Regions Shows Surprising Compositional Similarities But Negative Priming And Nutrient Effects, Ethan Wologo, Sarah Shakil, Scott Zolkos, Sadie Textor, Stephanie Ewing, Jane Klassen, Robert G. M. Spencer, David C. Podgorski, Suzanne E. Tank, Michelle A. Baker, Jonathan A. O'Donnell, Kimberly P. Wickland, Sydney S. W. Foks, Jay P. Zarnetske, Joseph Lee-Cullin, Futing Liu, Yuanhe Yang, Pirkko Kortelainen, Jaana Kolehmainen, Joshua F. Dean, Jorien E. Vonk, Robert M. Holmes, Gilles Pinay, Michaela M. Powell, Jansen Howe, Rebecca J. Frei, Samuel P. Bratsman, Benjamin W. Abbott
Stream Dissolved Organic Matter In Permafrost Regions Shows Surprising Compositional Similarities But Negative Priming And Nutrient Effects, Ethan Wologo, Sarah Shakil, Scott Zolkos, Sadie Textor, Stephanie Ewing, Jane Klassen, Robert G. M. Spencer, David C. Podgorski, Suzanne E. Tank, Michelle A. Baker, Jonathan A. O'Donnell, Kimberly P. Wickland, Sydney S. W. Foks, Jay P. Zarnetske, Joseph Lee-Cullin, Futing Liu, Yuanhe Yang, Pirkko Kortelainen, Jaana Kolehmainen, Joshua F. Dean, Jorien E. Vonk, Robert M. Holmes, Gilles Pinay, Michaela M. Powell, Jansen Howe, Rebecca J. Frei, Samuel P. Bratsman, Benjamin W. Abbott
Biology Faculty Publications
Permafrost degradation is delivering bioavailable dissolved organic matter (DOM) and inorganic nutrients to surface water networks. While these permafrost subsidies represent a small portion of total fluvial DOM and nutrient fluxes, they could influence food webs and net ecosystem carbon balance via priming or nutrient effects that destabilize background DOM. We investigated how addition of biolabile carbon (acetate) and inorganic nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) affected DOM decomposition with 28-day incubations. We incubated late-summer stream water from 23 locations nested in seven northern or high-altitude regions in Asia, Europe, and North America. DOM loss ranged from 3% to 52%, showing a …
Increasing Our Ability To Predict Contemporary Evolution, Patrik Nosil, Samuel M. Flaxman, Jeffrey L. Feder, Zachariah Gompert
Increasing Our Ability To Predict Contemporary Evolution, Patrik Nosil, Samuel M. Flaxman, Jeffrey L. Feder, Zachariah Gompert
Biology Faculty Publications
Classic debates concerning the extent to which scientists can predict evolution have gained new urgency as environmental changes force species to adapt or risk extinction. We highlight how our ability to predict evolution can be constrained by data limitations that cause poor understanding of deterministic natural selection. We then emphasize how such data limits can be reduced with feasible empirical effort involving a combination of approaches.
Effect Of Three Classroom Research Experiences On Science Attitudes, Lauren K. Lucas, Frances K. Hunter, Zachariah Gompert
Effect Of Three Classroom Research Experiences On Science Attitudes, Lauren K. Lucas, Frances K. Hunter, Zachariah Gompert
Journal on Empowering Teaching Excellence
Here we evaluate undergraduate student attitudes about science after each of three authentic research experiences in a semester of an introductory biology laboratory course at Utah State University. The three course-based research experiences (CUREs) vary in length and student freedom, and they cover different areas of biology. Students responded to the science attitude items of the CURE Survey. When compared to national data, our students faired similarly, and all students struggled with certain epistemic assumptions about science knowledge. As also seen in the national database, change in science attitude was slight and nonlinear. Student self confidence in what a career …
Ecological Factors Influencing Wild Pig Damage To Planted Pine And Hardwood Seedlings, Micah P. Fern, James B. Armstrong, Rebecca J. Barlow, John S. Kush
Ecological Factors Influencing Wild Pig Damage To Planted Pine And Hardwood Seedlings, Micah P. Fern, James B. Armstrong, Rebecca J. Barlow, John S. Kush
Human–Wildlife Interactions
Expanding wild pig (Sus scrofa) populations across the southern United States has the potential to impact longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) restoration efforts. The depredation of planted pine seedlings is the most widespread and economically costly damage caused by wild pigs in forest plantations. A better understanding of the ecological factors affecting depredation rates will allow managers to implement best management practices to reduce seedling mortality from wild pigs at their most vulnerable stage of growth. From March 2016 to March 2017, we evaluated wild pig preferences for planted pine and hardwood species at a 34.4-ha cutover …
Assessing Vulture Translocation As A Management Tool To Mitigate Airport Bird Strikes, Weber Galvão Novaes, Tarcísio Lyra Dos Santos Abreu, Rafael Soave Guerta
Assessing Vulture Translocation As A Management Tool To Mitigate Airport Bird Strikes, Weber Galvão Novaes, Tarcísio Lyra Dos Santos Abreu, Rafael Soave Guerta
Human–Wildlife Interactions
Collisions between wildlife and aircraft are a major safety concern for international aviation. In the Americas, vultures (Cathartidae) are considered to be one of the most hazardous bird species to airport operations. In this study, we evaluated the use of translocations as a management technique to reduce vulture abundance near the Manaus International Airport (MAO), Manaus, Brazil. The MAO is one of the busiest and most strategically important airports in South America, often referred to as the gateway to the Brazilian Amazon. We captured, wing-tagged, and translocated 98 vultures between August and October 2013 and between January and April 2014. …
Investigating Nest Box Utilization By Bumble Bees And Reproductive Development Of Male Bumble Bees, James Daniel Herndon
Investigating Nest Box Utilization By Bumble Bees And Reproductive Development Of Male Bumble Bees, James Daniel Herndon
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Bumble bees (Bombus Latrielle) are a wide-spread group of pollinating insects that are important species to conserve across many environments to ensure both ecological and economic resiliency because they pollinate important agricultural, horticultural, and wild flora. Surprisingly, fundamental questions still remain about this important charismatic group of pollinators. The investigations in this thesis are but two of many topics that require further research. The topics investigated are understanding bumble bee nest site preferences and reproductive development of both sexes of bumble bees. The first experiment (Chapter 2) investigates whether nest boxes elevated off of the ground and attached to …
Interactions Between Water-Stress And Maize Resistance To Spider Mites With Varied Host Specialization, Gunbharpur S. Gill
Interactions Between Water-Stress And Maize Resistance To Spider Mites With Varied Host Specialization, Gunbharpur S. Gill
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Spider mites are well-documented pests of many agricultural crops including cereals such as maize. In hot and dry conditions, when crop plants are under water-stress, spider mite populations can rapidly increase within weeks and can cause severe yield losses. One approach to manage pests, such as spider mites, is through the development and selection of plants that can resist pests. Screening of maize lines has provided evidence of spider mite resistance; however, it is unclear how plant water-stress may affect the ability of maize to sustain spider mite resistance. In addition, it is important to understand how plants respond to …
Ecology And Economic Impact Of The Invasive Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae; Halyomorpha Halys) In The Utah Agricultural Landscape, Zachary R. Schumm
Ecology And Economic Impact Of The Invasive Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae; Halyomorpha Halys) In The Utah Agricultural Landscape, Zachary R. Schumm
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
The brown marmorated stink bug (BMSB) is a major insect pest that causes economic loss to a diversity of U.S. fruit and vegetable crops, and invades homes and human structures, causing nuisance issues for homeowners. This destructive insect causes millions of dollars of crop damage annually, and is difficult to manage due to its resistance to some common insecticides. BMSB is a relatively new pest to Utah, and its biology and ecology is not well known in the high elevation, arid Intermountain West region. In Chapter II, I explored the potential impact of BMSB to tart cherry, an unstudied crop …
Anthropogenic Influences On Bacterial Assemblages In Stream Biofilms, Elizabeth M. Ogata
Anthropogenic Influences On Bacterial Assemblages In Stream Biofilms, Elizabeth M. Ogata
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Bacteria within biofilms are an essential component of stream ecosystems, influencing the movement of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in watersheds. To better understand the ecological effects of human activities on stream ecosystems, my research examined how nutrients and pharmaceuticals, common pollutants in streams worldwide, influence bacterial assemblages in stream biofilms. First, I tested how nutrients (N, P, iron) and pharmaceuticals (caffeine, diphenhydramine) influenced biofilm bacterial microbiomes (taxa present in at least 75% of samples of a contaminant treatment). Nutrients allowed taxa known for their ability to thrive in nutrient-rich environments to dominate microbiomes, pharmaceuticals supported a rich …
Impacts Of Tourism On The Ecophysiology Of The Endangered Northern Bahamian Rock Iguana (Cyclura Cychlura), Alison C. Webb
Impacts Of Tourism On The Ecophysiology Of The Endangered Northern Bahamian Rock Iguana (Cyclura Cychlura), Alison C. Webb
All Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Spring 1920 to Summer 2023
Increased interest in ecotourism over recent years has led to more direct human-animal interactions and a striking concomitant increase in the provisioning of non-natural food, that may have unintended consequences for the wildlife involved. The critically endangered Northern Bahamian Rock Iguana provides a valuable model to address the potential impact of food provisioning on health as there are populations that represent a graded variation in human presence, with sites experiencing high, low, or no tourism. To assess the potential impacts of tourism on iguana physiology I first reviewed the relevant literature on iguana physiology and then performed three investigations focusing …
Rapid: Covid-19 Induced Cessation Of Ecotourism And Supplemental Feeding: Implications For Wildlife Physiology, Reproduction, And The Microbiome, Susannah S. French
Rapid: Covid-19 Induced Cessation Of Ecotourism And Supplemental Feeding: Implications For Wildlife Physiology, Reproduction, And The Microbiome, Susannah S. French
Funded Research Records
No abstract provided.
Collaborative Research: Diverse Selective Pressure On Fruit Chemical Traits From Mutualists And Antagonists As A Major Driver Of Chemical Evolution At The Whole Plant Level, Noelle G. Beckman
Funded Research Records
No abstract provided.
Seed-Transmitted Wheat Mosaic Virus In Sweet Corn In Utah, Claudia Nischwitz
Seed-Transmitted Wheat Mosaic Virus In Sweet Corn In Utah, Claudia Nischwitz
Biology Faculty Publications
Wheat mosaic virus (WMoV) (syn. High Plains virus) was first observed in corn in 1993 in Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, and Texas (Seifers et al. 1997). The virus causes chlorotic streaks and mosaic on corn foliage, and it stunts ear development. When infected early in the season, plants frequently die. There are anecdotal reports of reduced seed germination rates in infected seed lots. The host range of the virus includes corn, small grains, and yellow and green foxtail. The virus is transmitted by the wheat curl mite (Aceria tosichella Keifer 1969). Seed transmission of WMoV at extremely low rates was …
Brain Micrornas Among Social And Solitary Bees, Karen M. Kapheim, Beryl M. Jones, Eirik Søvik, Eckart Stolle, Robert M. Waterhouse, Guy Bloch, Yehuda Ben-Shahar
Brain Micrornas Among Social And Solitary Bees, Karen M. Kapheim, Beryl M. Jones, Eirik Søvik, Eckart Stolle, Robert M. Waterhouse, Guy Bloch, Yehuda Ben-Shahar
Biology Faculty Publications
Evolutionary transitions to a social lifestyle in insects are associated with lineage-specific changes in gene expression, but the key nodes that drive these regulatory changes are unknown. We examined the relationship between social organization and lineage-specific microRNAs (miRNAs). Genome scans across 12 bee species showed that miRNA copy-number is mostly conserved and not associated with sociality. However, deep sequencing of small RNAs in six bee species revealed a substantial proportion (20–35%) of detected miRNAs had lineage-specific expression in the brain, 24–72% of which did not have homologues in other species. Lineage-specific miRNAs disproportionately target lineage-specific genes, and have lower expression …
Morphological Evidence For An Oral Venom System In Caecilian Amphibians, Pedro Luiz Mailho-Fontana, Marta Maria Antoniazzi, Cesar Alexandre, Daniel Carvalho Pimenta, Juliana Mozer Sciani, Edmund D. Brodie Jr., Carlos Jared
Morphological Evidence For An Oral Venom System In Caecilian Amphibians, Pedro Luiz Mailho-Fontana, Marta Maria Antoniazzi, Cesar Alexandre, Daniel Carvalho Pimenta, Juliana Mozer Sciani, Edmund D. Brodie Jr., Carlos Jared
Biology Faculty Publications
Amphibians are known for their skin rich in glands containing toxins employed in passive chemical defense against predators, different from, for example, snakes that have active chemical defense, injecting their venom into the prey. Caecilians (Amphibia, Gymnophiona) are snake-shaped animals with fossorial habits, considered one of the least known vertebrate groups. We show here that amphibian caecilians, including species from the basal groups, besides having cutaneous poisonous glands as other amphibians do, possess specific glands at the base of the teeth that produce enzymes commonly found in venoms. Our analysis of the origin of these glands shows that they originate …